ap psych module 0

critical thinking

careful reasoning that questions assumptions, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

hindsight bias

"I knew it all along" phenomenon, believing outcomes were predictable after they occur.

peer reviewers

independent experts who evaluate research before its published for accuracy.

theory

an explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors/ events.

hypothesis

a testable prediction that drives research, usually derived from a theory.

operational definition

a precise statement of procedures used to define + measure variables.

replication

repeating a study to confirm the reliability of findings.

case study

an in-depth analysis of one specific person/ group.

naturalistic observation

observing a person/ group in their natural environment, without any outside manipulation.

survey

a method for gathering self-reported data from a large group.

social desirability bias

responding in a way that makes someone look favorable.

self-report bias

inaccuracies when participants describe themselves.

sampling bias

when a sample doesn't fairly represent a population.

random sample

a sample where everyone in the population has an equal chance of inclusion.

population

the entire group a researcher wants to study + draw conclusions about.

correlation

a measure of how two variables relate or change each other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index [-1,1] showing the strength + correlation of correlation.

variable

any factor that can change + be measured in research.

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of points showing the relationship between two variables.

illusory correlation

perceiving a correlation when one doesn't exist.

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme scores to return closer to average.

experiment

research method where one variable is manipulated to observe its effects.

experimental group

the group that receives treatment.

control group

the group not given the treatment, used for comparison.

random assignment

assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias.

single-blind procedure

participants don't know what group they're in.

double-blind procedure

neither researchers or participants know what group they're in.

placebo effect

improvement caused by expectations, not the treatment itself.

independent variable

the factor manipulated by the experimenter.

confounding variable

an uncontrolled factor that might influence results.

experimenter bias

when researchers' expectations unintentionally affect results.

dependent variable

the factor measured, the outcome affected by independent variable.

validity

the extent to which a test/ study measures what it claims to measure.

quantitative research

research using numerical data + statistical analysis.

qualitative research

research using descriptive, non-numerical data.

informed consent

participants must be told enough to decide whether to join a study.

debriefing

explaining the study, purpose, and any deception after it ends.

descriptive statistics

numbers that summarize + describe data.

histogram

a bar graph showing frequency distribution.

mode

the most frequent score.

mean

the arithmetic average.

median

the middle score when data is ordered.

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a particular score.

skewed distribution

a distribution that is lopsided, not symmetrical.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores.

standard deviation

a measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

normal curve

a bell shaped distribution where most values cluster near the mean.

inferential statistics

methods that allow generalizations from sample data to a population.

meta-analysis

combining many study results to determine overall trends.

statistical significance

a measure of whether results are likely due to chance.

effect size

the strength/ magnitude of a relationship/ experimental effect.