PSYC 101 Ch. 7

developmental psychology

the scientific study of biological, cognitive, social, and personality development across the lifespan.

zygote

the fertilized egg that is formed from the union of the sperm and egg cells in human reproduction.

gene

the basic unit of genetic instruction.

chromosomes

molecules of DNA that hold the genetic instructions for every cell in the body.

identical (monozygotic) twins

twins that originate from the same zygote.

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

twins that originate from the fertilization of two eggs at approximately the same time (two zygotes).

teratogens

environmental agents such as drugs and viruses, diseases, and physical conditions that impair prenatal development and lead to birth defects and sometimes death.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

a syndrome affecting infants whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy, resulting in a range of severe effects, including intellectual disability and facial abnormalities.

sucking reflex

an innate human reflex that leads infants to suck anything that touches their lips.

rooting reflex

an innate human reflex that leads infants to turn their mouth toward anything that touches their cheeks and search for something to suck on.

habituation

a decrease in the physiological response to a stimulus once it becomes familiar.

phonemes

the smallest distinctive speech sounds in a language.

baby talk (parentese)

the different format of speech that adults use when talking with babies that involves the use of shorter sentences with a higher, more melodious pitch.

babbling

the rhythmic repetition of various syllables, including both consonants and vowels.

holophrase

a word used by an infant to express a complete idea.

overextension

the application of a newly learned word to objects that are not included in the meaning of the word.

underextension

the failure to apply a new word more generally to objects that are included within the meaning of the word.

telegraphic speech

using two-word sentences with mainly nouns and verbs.

assimilation

Piaget's term for the interpretation of new experiences in terms of present schemas.

accomodation

Piaget's term for the modification of present schemas to fit with new experiences.

sensorimotor stage

the first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from birth to about age 2, during which infants learn about the world through their sensory and motor interactions with it and develop object permanence.

object permanence

the knowledge that an object exists interpendent of perceptual contact with it.

preoperational stage

the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from age 2 to 6, during which the child's thinking becomes more symbolic and language-based, but remains egocentric and lacks the mental operations that allow logical thinking.

egocentrism

the inability to distinguish one's own perceptions, thoughts, and feelings from those of others.

conservation

the knowledge that the quantitative properties of objects (such as mass and number) remain the same despite changes in appearance.

reversibility

the knowledge that reversing a transformation brings about the conditions that existed before the transformation.

centration

the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a problem at a time.

concrete operational stage

the third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from age 6 to 12, during which children gain a fuller understanding of conservation and other mental operations that allow them to think logically, but only about concrete events.

formal operational stage

the last stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, starting at age 12 or so, during which a child gains the capacity for hypothetical-deductive thought.

information-processing approach to cognitive development

an approach to studying cognitive development that assumes cognitiive development is continuous and improves as children become more adept at processing information (taking in, storing, and using information).

zone of proximal development

according to Vygotsky, the difference between what a child can actually do and what the child could do with the help of others.

scaffolding

according to Vygotsky, a style of teaching in which the teacher adjusts the level of help in relation to the child's level of performance while orienting the child's learning toward the upper level of his or her zone of proximal development.

cross-sectional study

a study in which the performances of groups of participants of different ages are compared with one another.

longitudinal study

a study in which performance of the same group of participants is examined at different ages.

cohort effects

people of a given age (cohorts) are affected by factors unique to their generation, leading to differences in performance between generations.

preconventional level of moral reasoning

the first level of reasoning in Kohlberg's theory of moral development in which moral reasoning is based on avoiding punishment and looking out for your own welfare and needs.

conventional level of moral reasoning

the second level of reasoning in Kohlberg's theory of moral development in which moral reasoning is based on social rules and laws.

postconventional level of moral reasoning

the last level of reasoning in Kohlberg's theory of moral development in which moral reasoning is based on self-chosen universal ethical principles (with human rights taking precedence over laws) and the avoidance of self-condemnation for violating such principles.

attachment

the lifelong emotional bond between infants and their mothers or other caregivers, formed during the first 6 months of life.

secure attachment

the type of attachment indicated by the infant exploring freely int he presence of the mother in the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure, displaying distress when the mother leaves, and responding enthusiastically when she returns.

insecure-avoidant attachment

the type of attachment indicated by the infant exploring with little interest in the mother in the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure, showing only minimal distress when the mother leaves, and avoiding her when she returns.

insecure-ambivalent attachment

the type of attachment indicated by the infant not exploring but seeking closeness to the mother in the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure, showing high levels of distress when the mother leaves, and ambivalent behavior when she returns--by alternatively clinging and pushing away from her.

insecure-disorganized (disoriented) attachment

the type of attachment indicated by the infant's confusion when the mother leaves and returns in the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure. The infant acts disoriented, seems overwhelmed by the situation, and does not demonstrate a consistent way of coping with it.

temperament

the set of innate tendencies or dispositions that lead a person to behave in certain ways.

authoritarian parenting

a style of parenting in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.

authoritative parenting

a style of parenting in which the parents are demanding, but set rational limits for their children and communicate well with their children.

permissive parenting

a style of parenting in which the parents make few demands and are overly responsive to their children's desires, letting their children do pretty much as they please.

uninvolved parenting

a style of parenting in which the parents minimize both the time they spend with their children and their emotional involvement with them, and provide for their children's basic needs but little else.

theory of mind

the understanding of the mental and emotional states of both ourselves and others.