Exam 2 organizer review

function of root

anchors, absorbs water, storage of sugar

function of stem

support leaves, transport water/sugar, height, dispersal

function of leaves

photosynthesis, gas exchange, attract pollinators

structure of roots

root hairs → where water enters

function of dermal

defense, guard cells, water absorption in root hairs

function of ground

photosynthesis, support, short-distance transport, storage

function of vascular

transport water, sugar, hormones, and minerals, structural support

types of structure of dermal

woody and non-woody

characteristics of non-woody

epidermis and cuticle

characteristic of woody

periderm

type of structure of vascular

xylem and phloem

xylem

transport water and minerals from root

phloem

transport sugar and hormones from leaves

cohesion tension hypothesis

sun rises → photosynthesis occurs → stomata opens, H2O leaves the leafs → **transpiration**

pressure flow hypothesis

moves from source → sink (**Translocation**)

source

excess sugar (leaf), high pressure

sink

area of storage or metabolism (roots), low pressure

indeterminate growth

“stem cells”, not limited to a specific period

primary growth

upward growth, apical meristems (grows from tip)

secondary growth

woody plants, circumference (thicker)

function of auxin

promotes elongation by phototropism

function of cytokinins

control cell division and differentiation

Abscisic Acid (ABA)

seed dormancy and delays germination until washed out

function of ethylene

triple response to stress and fruit ripening

3 components of ethylene

slow elongation, thicken stems, curve/ horizontal growth

Darwin’s experiment

phototropism - plants will adjust to face sun to grow

Boysen-Jenson experiment

signal must be coming from tip to control phototropism

conformers

internal conditions change with environment (animal makes blood temp same as outside temp)

regulator

conditioned maintained to counter the environment (temp in humans)

positive feedback

response is amplified or changed in a state

negative feedback

restores back to set point

insulin

leads to storage of glucose as glycogen

glucagon

leads to release of glycogen to glucose

homeostasis in protocells

non living, does homeostasis by osmosis and diffusion

homeostasis in paramecium

in freshwater, are hypotonic due to salt concentration inside → contractile vacuoles to pump water out to not pop

homeostasis in jellyfish

diploblastic development, have “flat” morphology → thin, osmosis still effective

high glucose pathway

1. glucose levels rises
2. pancreas release insulin
3. triggers liver to store glucose to glycogen
4. restored back to set point

low glucose pathway

1. glucose levels falls
2. pancreas secretes glucagon
3. triggers liver to break down glucagon into glucose to be released into blood stream
4. blood glucose levels rises

endocrine system

communication with hormones through blood stream, within whole body → through homeostasis

paracrine system

uses local regulators to nearby cells → via diffusion

autocrine signaling

target on itself → via diffusion

synaptic signaling

use of neurotransmitters synapse to transport hormones

neuroendocrine signaling

uses neurosecretory cells to secrete neurohormones

pheromone signaling

chemical released into external environment to define territory, warn off predators, and attract mates

types of signal molecules

modified fatty acids, gases, polypeptides

3 major chemical classes hormones

polypeptides, steroids, amines

polypeptides

100s of AA, ex. insulin (water soluble)

steroids

lipids with 4 carbon rings, derived from cholesterol (lipid soluble)

amines

synthesized from single AA, ex. epinephrine (water soluble)

pathway of water soluble

1. travels freely in bloodstreams
2. binds receptor on target
3. hormone doesn’t enter cell, binds to G protein
4. G protein activates (change shape) → GDP turns into GTP
5. G protein binds to adenylyl cyclase
6. adenylyl cyclase activates (change shape) → ATP turns into cAMP
7. cAMP (secondary messenger) → activates protein kineases
8. protein kinases: inhibits or activates other proteins by phosphorylation

pathway of lipid soluble

1. diffuse across cell membrane
2. binds to transport protein
3. enters cell

4a. binds to cytoplasm

4b. enters nucleus

both changes gene expression

endocrine signaling pathway

1. stimulus
2. endocrine cell
3. hormone
4. bloodstream
5. target
6. response

neuroendocrine signaling pathway

1. stimulus
2. sensory neuron
3. neurosecretory cell
4. neurohormone
5. target cell
6. response

function of hypothalamus

receives information from nerves, coordinates regulation of hormones

function of post. pit.

stores and secretes hormones

types of hormones in hypothalamus

tropic and nontropic: RH and IH (TRH and CRF)

hormones from Pos. Pit

ADH (triggers water conservation on kidneys) and Oxytocin (milk producer)

function of Ant. Pit.

synthesizes and secretes hormones (controlled by RH and IH)

hormones from Ant. Pit.

TSH and ACTH

function of thyroid

metabolism. BP, muscle tone, heart rate, regulate digestive and reproduction function

hormones from thyroid

T3 and T4 and calcitonin

function of parathyroid

controls blood Ca2+ levels

hormones from parathyroid

PTH

function of adrenal medulla

fight or flight response

hormones from adrenal medulla

epinephrine and norepinephrine

what does the adrenal medulla regulate?

metabolism, blood, glycogen, and O2 delivery

function of adrenal cortex

chronic stress

hormones released by adrenal cortex

glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

glucocorticoids

non-carb glucose that breaks down muscle and lowers immunity

mineralocorticoids

maintain salt and water balance and increase BP

pathway of thyroid hormones

1. levels in thyroid hormone drops
2. hypothalamus → TRH (thyroid releasing hormone)
3. Ant. Pit. → TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
4. target tissues → releases T3 and T4
5. levels of thyroid returns to normal

typical hormone cascade pathway

1. stimulated by signals to brain
2. hypothalamus secretes releasing or inhibiting hormones (RH/IH)
3. Ant. Pit. secretes stimulating hormone (SH)
4. target endocrine tissue → releases a hormone

parathyroid pathway when Ca2+ is low

1. parathyroid releases PTH (parathyroid hormone)
2. signals Ca2+ to be released from bones, kidney absorbs Ca2+ and activates vitamin D for absorption in intestines

parathyroid pathway when Ca2+ is high

1. thyroid will released calcitonin
2. calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts (bone absorbs Ca2+ and liver does not absorb)

adrenal pathway of adrenal medulla

1. hypothalamus
2. post. pit.
3. adrenal medulla (release epinephrine or norepinephrine)

adrenal pathway of adrenal cortex

1. corticosteroids releasing factor (CRF) released from hypothalamus
2. stimulates Ant. Pit. → releases ACTH
3. adrenal cortex (glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids)

pathway of post. pit.

1. hormone produced in hypothalamus
2. travels down long axons
3. stored in post. pit
4. released in response to nerve signal

function of testes

produce sperm and secrete inhibin and ABP, secretes testosterone

function of epididymis

sperm transport (3 weeks), maturation, and storage

function of scrotum

cooling 1-2 degree C, increase sperm longevity

function of penis

delivers sperm to female reproductive tract

types of accessory glands

seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland

seminal vesicles

secretes into vas deferens, 60% of semen volume, produce fructose (energy) for sperm to go far in female

prostate gland

secretes in urethra, has anticoagulant enzymes, citrate (nutrient)

Bulbourethral gland

neutralizes acid in vagina and some sperm also gets caught (precum)

vas deferens

tube uses for sperm to leave epididymis

urethra

carries urine and semen (at different times)

sperm pathway

1. testes (seminiferous tubes)
2. epididymis
3. vas deferens
4. ejaculatory duct
5. urethra
6. penis
7. released from body

spermatogenesis

1. spermatogonium (2n)
2. mitosis
3. primary spermatocyte (2n)
4. meiosis 1
5. secondary spermatocytes (1n)
6. meiosis 2
7. spermatids
8. differentiation
9. sperm

(one spermatogonia makes 8 sperm cells)

ovary

where egg matures and secretes estrogen, cell that goes through meiosis to make egg

oviduct

where secondary oocytes is moved by cila (fallopian tubes)

uterus

the womb

myometrium

smooth muscle → contractions

endometrium

blood vessels, glands, tissues

cervix

separates uterus from vagina, opening at the bottom of uterus

vagina

birth canal

vulva

external genitalia

steps of fertilization

1. sperm touching egg
2. acrosome reaction
3. slow back to polyspermy and cortical reaction
4. egg activation
5. karyogamy → zygote
* fertilization ends with first cleavage

structure around the egg

plasma membrane, zona pellucida, follicle cells

equal holoblastic

cleavage furrow passes entirely through egg, equal division of egg cytoplasm and equal blastomeres (occurs in small yolk)