Introduction to Psychology

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from the introductory lecture on psychology.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavior

Everything we do that can be directly observed.

Mental Process

Thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be directly observed.

Critical Thinking

The process of reflecting deeply, asking questions, and evaluating evidence.

Empirical Method

Gaining knowledge through observation, data collection, and logical reasoning.

Functionalism

James's approach, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual’s adaptation to the environment

Natural Selection

Darwin’s principle of an evolutionary process where better-adapted organisms survive.

Neuroscience

The scientific study of the nervous system and its impact on behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

Positive Psychology

A branch of psychology emphasizing human strengths such as hope, happiness, and gratitude.

Biological Approach

Focuses on the body's systems, particularly the brain and nervous system.

Cognitive Approach

Emphasizes mental processes like thinking, problem-solving, and memory.

Behavioral Approach

Approach focusing on the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants

Consciousness

An individuals awareness if external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one’s experiences

Evolutionary Approach

Approach focusing on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors

Humanistic Approach

Approach focusing on a person’s positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one’s destiny

Psychodynamic approach

Approach focusing on unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sexual pleasure) and society’s demands, and early childhood family experiences

Psychopathology

The study of psychological disorders and their development of diagnostic categories and treatment for those disorders

Science

The use of systematic methods to observe the natural world and to draw conclusions

sociocultural approach

Approach focusing on the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior

structuralism

Wundt’s approach to discover the basic elements of structures of mental processes; so-called because of its focus on identifying the structures of the human

Theory

A broad idea, or set a closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations

Hypothesis

an educated guess that derives logically from a theory; a prediction that can be tested

Prediction

A statement about the specific expectation for the outcome of a study

Variable

Anything that can change

Operational definition

A definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study

Replication

repeating a study in a new sample to see if results are the same as in previous work a direct replication employs the very same method as the original study and conceptual replication employees different methods to test the same prediction

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of evidence from the research literature, a particular topic researcher to assess the strength of the relationship between the variables

Descriptive Research

Research that determines the basic dimensions of a phenomenon defining what it is how often it occurs and someone on

Case study or case history

An in-depth look at a single individual

correlational research

research that exam is relationship between variable is in order to find out whether and how to variables change together

Third Variable Problem

The circumstance of which a variable that has not been measured cast for the relationship between two other variables

cross-sectional design

Any type of correlation of study in which variables are measured as a single point in time

longitudinal design

A special kind of systematic observation used by correlation of researchers involves obtaining measures of the variable of interest in multiple waves over time

experiment

A carefully regulated procedure, and where the research manipulates one or more variable is believed to influence some other variable

Random assignment

The assignment a participants to experimental group by chance to reduce the likelihood by the studies, results will be due to pre-existing differences between groups

independent variable

A manipulated experimental factor the variable is that the experimental changes to see what it affects are

dependent variable

The outcome the variable that may change an experiment in response to changes and the independent variable

confederate

A person who is given a role to play an experiment so that the social context can be manipulated

experimental group

The participants in the experiment who received the drug or other treatment under study those who are exposed to a change that the independent variable represents

control group

To participate in the experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible, and who are treated in every way, like the experimental group except for a manipulative factor the independent variable

external validity

The degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real world issues is supposed to address

internal validity

the degree, to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

experimenter bias

the influence of the experimenter’s expectation on the outcome of a research

demand characteristic

any aspect of a study that communicates to the participants how the experimental was meant to be behave

Research participant bias

in an experiment, the influence, a participants expectations and of their thoughts on how they should behave on their behavior

placebo effect

a phenomenon in which the expectations of a participates rather than the actual treatment produces an outcome

placebo

in a drug study a harmless substance that has no physiological effect given to participates in a control group so that they are treated identical to the experimental group except for the active agent

double-blind experiment

An experimental design in which neither the experimenter, nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated

population

The entire group about which the investigator was to draw conclusion

sample

The subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study

random sample

A simple that gives every member of the population and equal chance of being selected

Naturalistic observation

The observation of behavior in a real world setting

descriptive statistics

Mathematical procedures that are used to describe a summarized set of data in a meaningful way

mean

A measure of central tendency that is an average for a sample

median

A measure of central tendency that is a middle score in a sample

mode

A measure of central tendency that is the most common score in a sample

range

A measure of dispersion that is the difference between the highest and lowest scores

standard deviation

A measure of dispersion that indicates how much the scores in a sample differ from the mean and the sample

inferential statistics

mathematical methods are used to indicate whether the data sufficiently support a research hypothesis

Nervous System

The bodies electrochemical communication circuitry

Plasticity

The brain’s special physical capacity for change

Afferent nerves or sensory nerves

Nerves that carry information about the external environment to the brain is spinal cord via sensory receptors

Efferent nerves or motor nerves

nerves that carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

The network of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body

Somatic nervous system

The body system consisting of the sensory nerves whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS about conditions such as pain temperature and the motor nerve whose function is to tell muscles what to do

autonomic nervous system

The bodies system that takes messages to and from the bodies internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate and digestion

sympathetic nervous system

The part of the autonomic system that arises to mobilize it for action and dust is involved in the experience of stress

Parasympathetic nervous system

The part of the autonomic system that calms the body

Neurons

one of two types of cells in the nervous system; neurons are the type of nerve cells that handle the information processing function

mirror neuron

nervous cells in the brain that are activated in human and non-human primates, both when an action is performed, and when the organism observes, the action being performed by another

glial cells or glia

the second of two types of cells in the nervous system glial cells, provide support, nutritional benefits and other functions and keep neurons running smoothly

Dendrites

Treelike fibers projecting from a neuron which receive information and oriented toward the neuron cell body

cell body

The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus which directs the manufacturer of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance

axon

The part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body towards other cells

myelin sheath

A layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons

resting potential

The stable negative charge of an inactive neuron

action potential

The brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

All or nothing principle

The principal that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity

Synapses

tiny spaces between neurons

neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron

Neural Network

Networks of nerve cells, but integrate sensory input in motor output

Hindbrain

located at the skull’s rear, the lowest portion of the brain consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons

brain stem

the stem like brain area that includes much of the high brain and the mid brain. It connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to in case the reticular formation in the midbrain

mid brain

located between the hindbrain and forebrain in area in which many nerve fiber systems ascended and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain in particular and brain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears

forebrain

the brain’s largest division and its most forward part

limbic system

a loosely connected network of structures under the cerebral cortex important in both memory and emotion. It’s two principal structures are amygdala and the hippocampus

amygdala

an almond shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism. Survival such as appropriate food mates and social rivals. There is one amygdala in each hemisphere of the brain

hippocampus

The structure in the Olympic system that has a special role in the storage of memories

thalamus

The foreign structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain’s central core and serves as an important relay station

Basal ganglia

large neuron clusters, located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum And the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements

hypothalamus

A small foreign structure located just below the thalamus that monitors, free, pleasurable activities, eating drinking, and sex, as well as emotion, stress and reward

cerebral cortex

Part of the four brain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental function, such as thinking and planning

neocortex

The outer most part of a cerebral cortex making up 80% of the cortex in the human brain

occipital lobes

Structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli

temporal lobes

Structures in the cerebral cortex are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing language, processing, and memory

frontal lobes

The portions of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead that are involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles.

parietal lobes

structures at the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control

somatosensory cortex

A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations located at the front of the parietal lobes