Key Terms in Argumentation and Logical Fallacies

Absolute language

language that offers no exceptions that imply complete certainty (all, always, never, every, etc.)

anecdote/anecdotal evidence

a brief story about an interesting or amusing event; often used to prove a point

concession

admitting the validity of the opponent's point of view; often followed by refutation

counterclaim

an assertion/generalization that shows an opposing viewpoint

diatribe

a bitter speech or piece of writing

disclaimer

a statement to reverse or limit the truth of a claim/assertion

digression

straying from the topic at hand, either intentionally or unintentionally; may lead back to topic

empirical evidence

evidence proven through studies and statistics; though absolute, it can be manipulated

exhortation

an address conveying urgent advice or recommendations

deduction

logic that uses a generally accepted statement to draw conclusions about a specific situation; deduction relies on accurate premises to arrive at sound conclusions; a faulty premise leads to a faulty conclusion

induction

logic that uses specific, observable examples to draw a general conclusion; induction deals with probabilities rather than with absolutes, and the logic depends on SUFFICIENT amount of evidence.

explicit language

precise, clearly stated words that leave no room for interpretation or doubt

generalization

a broad statement that applies to a wide variety of people, situations, etc.; usually supported by examples

objective language

factual, neutral words; avoids making a judgment or evoking emotion (opp. of subjective)

subjective language

language that expresses an opinion, makes a judgment, or evokes emotion (opp. of objective)

premise

a claim upon which an argument is based; the general rule from which a conclusion is drawn (see deductive reasoning) - may also be referred to as 'grounds' for a conclusion

qualification

offering an exception to a general rule or standards to modify a claim slightly

qualifier

words that avoid absolutes and admit potential exceptions

rejoinder

a quick reply to a question or remark (especially a witty or critical one)

rationale

a set of supposedly logical reasons used to justify a belief or course of action (like giving premises to justify a statement)

refutation

pointing out weaknesses/problems in opposing viewpoint

appeal to authority (also testimonial)

using words/ ideas of an 'expert' to give an argument greater credibility

argumentum ad hominem (personal attack, name calling)

attacking the person or group instead of the issue

argumentum ad populum (bandwagon)

suggestion that what most people believe or do must be correct

begging the question/ circular reasoning

occurs when someone assumes that what they hope to prove is already true.

false dilemma (also either/or fallacy)

when choices presented ignore alternatives and present a decision as having only two options

faulty cause and effect

falsely suggesting that because two things happen in order, one thing caused the other; aka post hoc ergo propter hoc

hasty generalization

fallacy that results from coming to a conclusion based on limited or incomplete evidence

non sequitur

an inference or conclusion that does not logically connect to the evidence (literally -does not follow)

oversimplification

presenting an overly simplistic solution to a complex problem

slippery slope

an assertion that certain outcomes will lead to increasingly dramatic consequences