Comprehensive Psychology and Organizational Behavior: Values, Perception, Decision-Making, Motivation

Values

Values are enduring beliefs or preferences about what is important, right, or desirable in life.

Terminal Values

Desired end-states or life goals (e.g., happiness, success, freedom).

Instrumental Values

Preferred modes of behavior or methods for achieving terminal values (e.g., honesty, hard work, ambition).

Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions

Hofstede's model explains how cultural values influence behavior in organizations.

Power Distance (PDI)

Acceptance of unequal power distribution.

Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV)

Focus on individual goals vs. group goals.

Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS)

Preference for achievement/competition vs. care/quality of life.

Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)

Tolerance for ambiguity and risk.

Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation (LTO)

Focus on future rewards vs. past/present.

Indulgence vs. Restraint (IVR)

Gratification of desires vs. strict social norms.

Perception

The process by which individuals interpret sensory information to give meaning to their environment.

Factors Influencing Perception

Perceiver: Attitudes, experiences, motives, expectations.

Target

Novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, similarity to others.

Situation

Time, social context, work setting, location.

Attribution Theory

How individuals explain the causes of behavior.

Internal Attribution

Behavior caused by personal factors (ability, effort).

External Attribution

Behavior caused by situational factors (luck, environment).

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating internal causes, underestimating situational ones.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing success to internal factors, failure to external ones.

Halo Effect

General impression biases judgment of specific traits.

Contrast Effect

Evaluation influenced by comparison with others.

Selective Perception

Focus on parts of info that support prior beliefs.

Stereotyping

Assigning traits based on group membership.

Rational Model

Logical, step-by-step approach.

Bounded Rationality

Limited info & cognitive limits; 'satisficing.'

Intuitive Decision Making

Based on experience and instincts.

Rational Decision-Making Steps

Identify the problem, Identify decision criteria, Weigh the criteria, Generate alternatives, Evaluate alternatives, Select the best alternative.

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and useful ideas.

Three-Component Model of Creativity

Expertise: Knowledge, technical skills; Creative Thinking Skills: Flexibility, imagination.

Intrinsic Motivation

Driven by personal interest and passion.

Organizational Constraints

Examples: Limited resources, time pressure, organizational politics, rules, hierarchy. Effect: Can restrict creative solutions and decision quality.

Ethical Decision Criteria

Utilitarian: Maximize overall good, minimize harm. Rights: Respect fundamental human rights. Justice: Ensure fairness and equity.

Reducing Biases

Encourage diverse perspectives. Use structured decision-making processes. Seek disconfirming evidence. Training and awareness of common biases.

Common Decision Biases/Errors

Overconfidence Bias - Overestimating own abilities. Anchoring Bias - Relying too heavily on first info. Confirmation Bias - Seeking info that confirms preconceptions. Availability Bias - Decisions influenced by recent or vivid events. Hindsight Bias - Belief that past events were predictable.

Motivation

The forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior.

Direction

What a person chooses to do.

Intensity

How hard they work.

Persistence

How long they sustain effort.

Need Theories

Maslow's Hierarchy: Physiological → Safety → Social → Esteem → Self-Actualization. McClelland's Theory of Needs: Achievement: Desire for success. Affiliation: Desire for social relationships. Power: Desire to influence/control others.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Motivators: Job content factors; increase satisfaction (e.g., achievement, recognition). Hygienes: Job context factors; prevent dissatisfaction (e.g., salary, working conditions). Influence: Motivators → satisfaction & motivation; Hygienes → prevent dissatisfaction.

Goal-Setting Theory

Definition: Goals energize and direct behavior. Effective Goals: Specific, challenging, attainable, measurable. Commitment Factors: Goal importance, self-efficacy, feedback, participation in goal setting.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Definition: Goal-setting approach where employees and managers agree on objectives. Four Components: Goal specificity. Participation in goal setting. Explicit time period. Performance feedback.

Equity Theory

Definition: Motivation influenced by perceived fairness of inputs vs. outcomes. Comparison Groups: Self-inside, Self-outside, Other-inside, Other-outside. Responses: Under-benefited: Reduce input, increase output, leave. Over-benefited: Cognitive adjustment, guilt.

Organizational Justice

Distributive Justice: Fairness of outcomes. Procedural Justice: Fairness of processes used. Interactional Justice: Fairness in interpersonal treatment.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Expectancy: Effort → Performance (belief effort leads to success). Instrumentality: Performance → Reward (belief success leads to reward). Valence: Value of reward to individual. Role: Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence.

Self-Efficacy Theory

Definition: Belief in one's ability to perform tasks. Influence: Higher self-efficacy → more effort, persistence, resilience → higher motivation.