PSY 252 Final

attitudes

A positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea.

attitude scales

A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person’s attitude toward some object.

bogus pipeline

A phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions.

facial electromyograph (EMG)

An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes.

implicit attitudes

An attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings or concepts--such as black or white with good or bad.

evaluative conditioning

The process by which we form an attitude toward a neutral stimulus because of its association with a positive or negation person, place, or thing.

theory of planned behavior

The theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person’s actions.

persuasion

The process by which attitudes are changed.

central route to persuasion

The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments.

peripheral route to persuasion

The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues.

elaboration

The process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication.

sleeper effect

A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a non-credible source.

need for cognition (NC)

A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities.

inoculation hypothesis

The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument.

psychological reactance

The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive.

cognitive dissonance theory

Theory holding that inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce.

insufficient justification

A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward.

insufficient deterrence

A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened.

collectivism

A cultural orientation in which interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over personal goals.

compliance

Changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests.

conformity

The tendency to change our perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with social or group norms.

door-in-the-face technique

A two-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large that it is rejected.

foot-in-the-door technique

A two-step compliance technique in which an influence sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request.

individualism

A cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self-reliance take priority over group allegiances.

informational influence

Influence that produces conformity when a person believes others are correct in their judgements.

lowballing

A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs.

minority influence

The process by which dissenters produce change within a group.

normative influence

Influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant.

obedience

Behavior change produced by the commands of authority.

private conformity

The change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others.

public conformity

A superficial change in overt behavior without a corresponding change of opinion that is produced by real or imagined group pressure.

social impact theory

The theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons.

that’s-not-all technique

A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer begins with an inflated request, then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus.

biased sampling

The tendency for groups to spend more time discussing shared information (information already known by all or most group members) than unshared information (information known by only one or a few group members).

brainstorming

A technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others’ contributions.

collective effort model

The theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant, and meaningful for achieving outcomes that they value.

collective intelligence

The general ability of a group to perform well across a wide range of different tasks.

deindividuation

The loss of a person’s sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior.

distraction-conflict theory

A theory that the presence of other will produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract from the task and create attentional conflict.

evaluation apprehension theory

A theory that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators.

group

A set of individuals who interact over time and have shared fate, goals, or identity.

group cohesiveness

The extent to which forces push group members closer together, such as through feelings of intimacy, unity, and commitment to group goals.

group polarization

The exaggeration of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members through group discussion.

group support systems

Specialized interactive computer programs that are used to guide group meetings, collaborative work, and decision-making processes.

groupthink

A group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence.

integrative agreement

A negotiated resolution to a conflict in which all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to what they would have obtained from an equal division of the contested resources.

mere presence

The proposition that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects.

prisoner’s dilemma

A type of dilemma in which one party must make either cooperative or competitive moves in relation to another party. The dilemma is typically designed so that the competitive move appears to be in one’s self-interest, but if both sides make this move, both suffer more than if both had cooperated.

process gain

The increase in group performance so that the group outperforms the individuals who make up the group.

process loss

The reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation.

resource dilemmas

Social dilemmas involving how two or more people will share a limited resource.

social dilemma

A situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone will crease the worst outcome for everyone.

social facilitation

A process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks.

social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE)

A model of group behavior that explains deindividuation effects as the result of a shift from personal identity to social identity.

social loafing

A group-produced reduction in individual output on task where contributions are pooled.

transactive memory

A shared system for remembering information that enables multiple people to remember information together more efficiently than they could do so alone.

attachment styles

The way a person typically interacts with significant others.

communal relationship

A relationship in which the participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other’s needs.

companionate love

A secure, trusting, stable partnership.

equity theory

The theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ration between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners.

exchange relationships

A relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions.

excitation transfer

The process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus.

hard-to-get effect

The tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available.

Intimate relationships

A close relationship between two adults involving emotional attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs, or interdependence.

lonliness

A feeling of deprivation about existing social relations.

matching hypothesis

The proposition that people are attracted to other who are similar in physical attractiveness.

mere exposure effect

The phenomenon whereby the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they evaluate that stimulus.

need for affiliation

The desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships.

passionate love

Romantic love characterized by high arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection.

reciprocity

A mutual exchange between what we give and receive--for example, liking those who like us.

self-disclosure

Revelations about the self that a person makes to others.

social exchange theory

A perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others.

triangular theory of love

A theory proposing that love has three basic components--intimacy, passion, and commitment--that can be combined to produce eight subtypes.

what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype

The belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desirable personality characteristics.

altruistic

Motivated by the desire to improve another’s welfare.

audience inhibition

Reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers.

bystander effect

The effect whereby the presence of others inhibits helping.

diffusion of responsibility

The belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need.

egoistic

Motivated by the desire to improve one’s own welfare.

empathy

Understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual’s perspective and feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual.

empathy-altruism hypothesis

The proposition that empathic concern for a person in need produces an altruistic motive for helping.

identity fusion

A strong sense of “oneness” and shared identity with a group and its individual members.

kin selection

Preferential helping of genetic relatives which results in the greater likelihood that genes held in common will survive.

negative state relief model

The proposition that people help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness.

pluralistic ignorance

The state in which people in a group mistakenly think that their own individual thoughts, feelings, or behaviors are different from those of the others in the group.

prosocial behaviors

Actions intended to benefit others.

reciprocal altruism

Altruism that involves an individual helping another (despite some immediate risk or cost) and becoming more likely to receive help from the other in return.

reluctant altruism

Altruistic kinds of behavior that result from pressure from peers or other sources of direct social influence.

aggression

Behavior intended to harm another individual.

catharsis

A reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual act of aggression.

corporal punishment

Physical force (such as spanking or hitting) intended to cause a child pain--but not injury--for the purpose of controlling or correcting the child’s behavior.

culture of honor

A culture that emphasizes honor and social status, particularly for males, and the role of aggression in protecting that honor.

cycle of violence

The transmission of domestic violence across generations.

Dark Triad

A set of three traits that are associated with higher levels of aggressiveness: Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism.

displacement

Aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access.

executive functioning

The cognitive abilities and precesses that allow humans to plan or inhibit their actions.

frustration-aggression hypothesis

The idea that (1) frustration always elicits the motive to aggress and that (2) all aggression is caused by frustration.

hostile attribution bias

The tendency to perceive hostile intent in others.

proactive aggression

Aggressive behavior whereby harm is inflicted as a means to a desired end (also called instrumental aggression).