Psychology 1000- Chapter 7: Learning

Two major forms of learning

1. Associative Learning

2. Cognitive learning/Non-associative learning

Associative Learning

Simple association among stimuli, behaviours, or both

• Classical conditioning

• Operant conditioning

Non-Associative Learning

A basic type of learning where repeated exposure to a single stimulus causes a lasting change in response. It includes two major types: habituation and sensitization.

Habituation

Repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to learning to respond less to a stimulus after it is repeatedly presented; “learning to ignore” something that becomes familiar.

Dishabituation

When a previously habituated (ignored) response suddenly returns to full strength, usually because something changes or a new stimulus appears.

Sensitization

A strong stimulus results in an increased or exaggerated response to later, even weaker, stimuli.

Example: Suffering trauma to loud, sudden sounds so any other similar sounds triggers a response

Classical Conditioning

Two previously unrelated stimuli are now associated and result in a learned response.

Example: Associating that when lighting is seen, thunder follows so when lighting comes, you cover your ears even if no thunder is present

Natural Reflex

An automatic involuntary response that typically occurs without learning (“hard wired”)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically causes a response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The natural, automatic reaction to the US; doesn’t need to be learned (e.g., salivation to food).

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus that does not trigger the response on its own (e.g., a bell before learning).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The once-neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the US, now triggers the response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to the bell).

Acquisition

The early stage of learning when a connection is first made between the stimulus and response. (The CS and US need to be paired closely in time—best around 30 second apart.)

Extinction

Reduction of a CR after repeated presentations of the CS alone (reduction in salivation when the bell is rung but no food shows up)

Spontaneous Recovery

The return of a previously extinguished CR after some time has passed without further training.(e.g., the dog suddenly salivates to the bell again even after extinction)

Higher-order Conditioning

Learning in which an already conditioned stimulus (CS) is used as if it were an unconditioned stimulus (US) to create a new conditioned stimulus.

Example: the dog learns to salivate to the lab assistant → then a bell is paired with the lab assistant → the bell becomes a new CS.

Stimulus Generalization

What happens when similar stimuli to the original CS also trigger the CR.

Example: the dog responds to all research assistants, not just one.

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to distinguish between the CS and other similar stimuli, responding only to the true CS.

Example: the dog salivates to one specific bell sound but not others.

Phobias

Extreme, irrational, persistent fears of specific objects or situations, many of which pose little to no danger

Systematic Desensitization

A treatment that gradually exposes a person to their fear in small, controlled steps to help reduce and eventually eliminate the phobia.

Conditioned Tate Aversion

A previously neutral stimulus (often an odour or taste) elicits an aversive reaction after it’s paired with illness (nausea)

Example: Eating sushi but drinking too much and getting sick so you never eat sushi again

Operant Or Instrumental Conditioning

Behaviour that is modified depending on the consequences

Edward Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

A learning experiment in which a hungry cat was placed in a box that could be opened by doing a simple action. At first, the cat tried random behaviors, but over time it learned—through trial and error—to perform the correct action faster to escape and get food.

Law of Effect

Behaviours are selected by their consequences. Behaviours that lead to rewards become more likely to be repeated, while behaviours that lead to negative outcomes are less likely to happen again.

Reinforcer

Something that increases the likelihood a behaviour will happen again.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant or rewarding experience after a behaviour to make that behaviour more likely to occur again (e.g., giving praise, stickers, or extra privileges).

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing a behaviour by removing something unpleasant after the behaviour occurs.

Examples include:

• Putting on a seatbelt to stop the beeping

• Taking Advil to remove a headache

• Avoiding a feared object to reduce anxiety

• Taking a drug to stop withdrawal symptoms

Punisher

Anything that reduces the likelihood a behaviour will happen again.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant after a behaviour to make that behaviour less likely to occur (e.g., scolding, extra chores, getting a speeding ticket, or getting hurt because you weren’t careful).

Negative Punishment

Taking away something pleasant after a behaviour to make that behaviour less likely to happen again (e.g., losing phone privileges, getting a time-out, or receiving the silent treatment)

Primary Reinforcer

A naturally rewarding stimulus that meets a basic need (e.g., food, water, sex, drugs).

Secondary Reinforcer

A learned reward—something that becomes valuable because it is associated with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, praise, attention).

Primary Punisher

Something that is naturally unpleasant or painful (e.g., shock, extreme heat or cold).

Secondary Punisher

A learned unpleasant stimulus—something that becomes aversive because it’s linked to a primary punisher (e.g., criticism, disapproval, being ignored).

Operant Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.

Example: A dog jumping in the kitchen for crumbs and receiving it so it tries the same thing in the living room and it works.

Operant Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to perform a behaviour only in the presence of specific cues or conditions that signal a reward—and not performing it when those cues aren’t present.

Operant Extinction

When a learned behaviour weakens or disappears because it is no longer followed by a reward.

Shaping

Introducing new behaviours by reinforcing close approximations to the desired behaviour. Used heavily for training animals to do “tricks”

Behaviour Modification

Using operant conditioning techniques (rewards and consequences) in a structured way to change behaviour—for example, token economies in ABA therapy.

Learned Helplessness

When someone stops trying to escape a negative situation because repeated past failures made them believe they have no control.

Intensity

Stronger or more powerful consequences (rewards or punishments) make behaviours more likely to be repeated or avoided.

Timing

Consequences work best when they happen immediately after the behaviour.

Continuous Reinforcement

Follows every correct response. Best for learning new responses

Partial Reinforcement

Doesn’t follow every response.

Fixed-Ratio

Reinforce a behaviour after a set number of responses.

Example: after a child says thank you 3 times, you give them a reward

Variable-Ratio

Reinforce after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses. You reward at different intervals, thought the overall average is still the same each time.

Fixed-Interval

Reinforce a response after a fixed time period (After every 5min, 10min, etc.)

Variable Interval

Reinforce first response after a varying time interval but still centred around the average.

Observational or social learning

Learning that occurs without training due to watching the behaviour of others, called models

Modelling

What occurs when an observer learns from the behaviour of another

Vicarious Learning

When an individual watches someone else do actions and based on the consequences the person receives, they decided to duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when you perform an action and when you watch someone else perform that same action

Implicit Learning

learning something without trying and without realizing it, like picking up patterns or skills automatically.

Example: Learning to walk or talk

Spatial Navigation Learning

learning how to move through an environment by forming associations between cues or landmarks.

example: Cognitive map when walking or driving

Latent Learning

Learning that happens without rewards or reinforcement and only shows up when it’s needed.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of the layout of a space (like remembering a maze or the layout of your house).

Example: Rats in an experiment knowing the way of the maze

Tolman’s Rat Study

Showed that rats can learn the layout of a maze without rewards—forming a cognitive map—and only demonstrate this learning once a reward is introduced( ex. Food), proving latent learning.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts

• Having a eureka moment

• The solution to a challenging

problem may pop into our minds

Timing

You learn facts better when you study them several times with breaks in between.

Context

Studying in different locations helps you remember information more strongly because you form multiple memory cues.

Example: Learning material in a class and writing a test in the same room so it helps to increase your memory of being able to recall information

Stroop Effect

Happens when it’s harder to name the colour of the ink because the word itself automatically gets read, and that automatic reading interferes with saying the ink colour.

Social Networking and Multi-Tasking

Using social media while trying to study or do work divides your attention, which lowers performance. Heavy social media use is linked to lower grades and fewer hours spent studying, and it can also distract people sitting nearby.

Sleep

Deprivation impacts our ability to pay attention and learn as it prevents learned information from moving into a more permanent long-term memory storage. It can also impact our immune system.

Specific Learning Disorder

A condition where a person has trouble with one area of learning (like reading, writing, or math) while the rest of their thinking abilities work normally.

Dyslexia

A reading disorder. It is a deficit with reading, spelling, and recognizing words; linked to the left parietal and temporal brain areas.

Dyscalculia

A mathematics disorder. Difficulty with math skills like calculations, word problems, and understanding math concepts; linked to the left parietal and frontal brain areas.

Dysgraphia

Disorder of written expression. Difficulty producing written language; causes are mostly unclear and may overlap with other learning disorders.