Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
Why do we care about microbes?
We care about microbes because of disease. Microbes are everywhere, but not all microbes are bad. Some microbes are the base of food chains, important for nutrient cycling, global photosynthesis, and agriculture. The are more microbial cells than human cells in the body.
commensals or mutualists
microbes that discourage pathogens and contribute to health
extremophiles
microbes that live in extreme environments
microbiology
the study of microscopic organisms (includes bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi, and parasites)
Robert Hooke
made the first microscopic observations of molds and fungi in 1655
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
discovered bacteria and protozoa and is credited as the developer of microbiology
spontaneous generation
the belief that the decay of organic matter generates microbes (this is an old theory)
abiogenesis
the belief that life can originate from non-living material
biogenesis
the belief that life can only arise from living things
Louis Pasteur
Disproved the idea of spontaneous generation and developed vaccines (TB, cholera, anthrax, and rabies). He disproved spontaneous generation by studying how beverages spoil which resulted in pasteurization.
inductive reasoning
make observations and develop an explanation or hypothesis
deductive reasoning
take an explanation for a phenomenon (hypothesis) and make observations to determine whether that explanation is supported
smallpox
extreme symptoms (fever, rash, shock) caused by a virus
Edward Jenner
Invented the smallpox vaccine. He noticed dairymaids got cowpox (mild symptoms) and then were immune to smallpox. He generated a hypothesis, ran an experiment, and developed the vaccine.
germ theory
microorganisms are the causative agent of diseases
Robert Koch and his postulates
Koch’s postulates are used to determine if a microbe causes disease.
suspected pathogen must be present in all diseased animals and absent from healthy animals
suspected pathogen must be isolated in a pure culture
the pure culture should be able to be used to infect and cause disease in a healthy host
the suspected pathogen must be re-isolated from the new host
refraction
The bending/changing of the angle of light passing through a lens. Occurs as light passes through the convex surface of a glass lens.
compound microscope
A microscope with two lenses. It has a light to illuminate the sample and a condenser to focus the light.
resolving power
the ability to distinguish two points from each other
numerical aperture
mathematical constant that is defined by the physical properties of the lens (higher NA=higher RP)
What is the visible light spectrum?
400 nm - 750 nm
bright field microscope
most common, image forms when light is transmitted through a specimen, generally requires a form of contrast (like a stain)
dark field microscope
Adapted from bright field by adding a stop which only allows peripheral light through. The light reflects off the sides of a specimen, the field is dark, and it is generally used when samples are sensitive to heat or drying.
phase contrast and interference microscope
Used to produce images with high levels of contrast. This is useful for observing internal structures and small differences in light waves passing through different parts of a specimen will be observed as different light intensities.
differential interference contrast microscope
adds more detail to image, including 3D
fluorescent microscopy
uses UV light, samples must be stained with dyes that fluoresce under UV and produce visible light
confocal microscopy
constructs a 3D image from multiple 2D scans of a specimen with a laser (also uses fluorescent stains)
scanning electron microscopy
Allows us to see very small specimens in detail. Can magnify a sample up to 5 million x
transmission electron microscopy
electrons are transmitted through the specimen so samples must be very thin (used to look at viruses and cell structure)
chromophore
what causes a stain’s color
auxochrome
what causes a stain’s charge
basic stains
positively charged, attracted to the cell components, stains the cell
negative stains
negatively charged, repelled by the cells, stains the background, used when cells are too sensitive to be heat fixed
differential stains
two different colored dyes are used to distinguish between cell types (ex: gram stain)
structural stains
stains with special properties are used to observe a specific cell
prokaryotes
single celled (can be arranged as chains or clusters), no true organelles, usually (not always) smaller
ex: bacteria and archaea
eukaryotes
single celled or multicellular, compartmentalized into special organelles, macro or microscopic
Hadean era
about 4-4.6 bya, this is when the earth formed and the first cells appeared
What are the requirements for life?
heredity, reproduction, growth, development, metabolism, responsiveness, and transport
Archaean era
2.5-4 bya, bacteria and archaea diverge, origin of photosynthesis, era ends with the great oxygenation event (cyanobacteria in oceans started producing oxygen through photosynthesis)
Proterozoic era
.54-2.5 bya, great oxygenation event, eukaryotes emerge, cambrian explosion (a wide variety of animals burst into the evolution scene)
What are the four main macromolecules?
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
carbohydrates
contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CH2O)n
saccharide
simple carbohydrates (monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide)
What’s the role of carbohydrates in the cell?
to provide structural support (cellulose and peptidoglycan), nutrient and energy storage (starch for plants, glycogen or animals), and adhesion
hydrolysis
digestion of carbohydrate polymers
lipids
a group of substances made of long hydrocarbon chains that are hydrophobic that are not soluble in polar solvents like water (ex: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids)
What is the function of lipids in the cell?
storage (triglycerides) and structure (phospholipids)
proteins
made of amino acids
peptide
short amino acid chain
polypeptide
amino acid chain of 20+ amino acids
primary protein structure
amino acid sequence
secondary protein structure
more complex structure of amino acids, hydrogen bonds form between amino acids located near each other, alpha helix or beta sheets are formed
tertiary protein structure
complex 3D structure of a protein (fully functional)
quaternary protein structure
two or more polypeptides interact to form a protein complex
What is the nucleic acid structure?
nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate
purines
adenine and guanine (two ring structure)
pyrimidine
thymine and cytosine (single ring structure)
phylogeny
the evolutionary history and relationships between organisms
What are the three domains of life and how do we know this?
bacteria, eukarya, and archaea, and we know this due to DNA sequencing
taxonomy
the classification and organization of organisms (arranged into these hierarchical groups: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species)
bacteria
Considered the least complex of all living things on earth but they are the most diverse. Only 1% of those organisms can be cultured, the rest we know through DNA sequencing.
bacteria flagella
allow cells to move in aqueous environments using propeller like motions
phototaxis
movement in response to a light signal
magnetotaxis
movement in response to a magnetic field
chemotaxis
movement in response to a chemical signal
run movement
bacteria flagella move counterclockwise (straight projection)
tumble movement
bacteria flagella move clockwise (random reorientation)
fimbriae
short, bristle-like attachment appendages on bacteria cells that are numbers on cell surface and allows attachment to surfaces and/or cell hosts
pilli
Longer attachment appendages on bacteria that allow attachment to surfaces and/or other cells. They can also have specialized functions like transfer of DNA between cells.
bacterial glycocalyx
coating of macromolecules that protects the cell
bacteria slime layer
loose shield that protects from dehydration and serves as a way for cells to adhere to surfaces
bacteria capsule
tightly bound layer that has a sticky consistency and protects bacteria from immune cells because the capsule prevents phagocytosis
What is the bacterial cell wall made of?
peptidoglycan
peptidoglycan
Make up the bacterial cell wall, comprised of glycan chains cross-linked by peptide fragments. Different bacteria have different amounts of peptidoglycan in their cell walls to prevent lysis (when cell membrane is destroyed in order to release intracellular materials)
lysozyme
an enzyme that can break the bonds in glycan chains and cause bacterial cell walls to break down (found in tears, salival, nasal and sinus fluids)
gram + cell wall
thick layer of peptidoglycan, teichoic acids embedded in peptidoglycan, loosely bound to the cell membrane, periplasmic space
gram - cell wall
comprised of a thinner layer of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane, lipopolysaccharides are imbedded in the peptidoglycan, contains outer membrane proteins (porins and structural proteins), more flexible due to thin layer of peptidoglycan, bigger periplasmic space
non-specific porins
allows small, hydrophilic molecules to pass through
specific porins
allows large, hydrophobic molecules (vitamins) to pass through
What are the key terms and characteristics of the cell membrane?
phospholipid bilayer, selective permeability, and fluid mosaic model
simple diffusion
going down a concentration gradient
facilitated diffusion
going down a concentration gradient through a membrane protein
active transport
going against a concentration gradient via membrane pump that requires energy
In prokaryotes, the chromosome is ___ and there is ___.
circular, one
plasmids
Small, extrachromosomal circular pieces of DNA found in prokaryotes. Not all cells of a species will have them and they contains genes that are not necessary for cellular function.
prokaryotic ribosomes
primary function is protein synthesis, made up of individual subunits (proteins and rRNA), smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
halophile
extremophiles that like elevated salt
thermophile
extremophiles that like a high temperature
psychrophile
extremophiles that like low temperature
acidophile
extremophiles that like low pH (less than 6)
barophile
extremophiles that like high pressure
alkaliphile
extremophiles that like high pH (greater than 8)
xerophile
extremophiles that like dry conditions
symbiotic relationships
close associations formed between pairs of species (ex: mutualism, amensalism, commensalism, neutralism, and parasitism
mutualism
symbiotic relationship where both populations benefit
amensalism
symbiotic relationship where one population is harmed and the other isn’t affected
commensalism
symbiotic relationship where one population benefits and the other is not affected
neutralism
symbiotic relationship where neither population is affected
parasitism
symbiotic relationship where one population benefits and the other is harmed