Study guide for test 2

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108 Terms

1
Kinetic energy
The energy of motion.
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2
Potential energy
Stored energy that has the potential to do work.
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3
Thermodynamics
The study of energy transformations.
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4
Kilocalorie (kcal)
A unit used to measure food energy, where 1 kcal = 1000 calories.
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5
Photosynthesis
The process by which plants, algae, and certain bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy.
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6
Oxidation
The loss of an electron.
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7
Reduction
The gain of an electron.
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8
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed from one form to another.
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9
Chemical energy
Energy stored in the bonds of molecules that can be converted into different forms.
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10
Entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
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11
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Energy transformations increase the total entropy of a system.
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12
Exergonic reactions
Reactions that release energy (G
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13
Endergonic reactions
Reactions that absorb energy (G>0) and are non-spontaneous.
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14
Activation energy
The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
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15
Catalysts
Substances that lower the activation energy required to start a reaction without being consumed.
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16
ATP
A molecule that stores and provides energy for cellular processes; often referred to as the "energy currency" of the cell.
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17
Hydrolysis of ATP
The process that breaks down ATP, releasing energy when the phosphate bonds are broken.
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18
Structure of ATP
Comprised of a ribose sugar, adenine, and three phosphate groups.
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19
Phosphate bonds
Bonds in ATP that store energy, especially between the last two phosphate groups.
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20
Endergonic processes
Processes that require energy to proceed, which ATP helps to drive.
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21
ATP cycle
The continuous recycling of ATP in cells from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
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22
Glycolysis
The metabolic process that converts glucose into two pyruvate molecules, producing ATP and NADH.
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23
Priming phase of glycolysis
The initial phase where glucose is phosphorylated using 2 ATP to become more reactive.
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24
Cleavage phase of glycolysis
The phase where the modified glucose splits into two 3-carbon molecules.
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25
Energy payoff phase of glycolysis
The phase where ATP and NADH are produced from the oxidized 3-carbon molecules.
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26
Aerobic respiration
A type of cellular respiration that uses oxygen as the final electron acceptor.
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27
Fermentation
A metabolic process that converts glucose to energy without oxygen using organic molecules as final electron acceptors.
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28
NAD+
An electron carrier molecule that accepts electrons and protons to form NADH.
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29
Pyruvate oxidation
The process that converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, producing CO2 and NADH.
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30
Citric Acid Cycle
A series of biochemical reactions that processes acetyl-CoA to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
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31
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
A series of protein complexes in the mitochondria that transfer electrons and create a proton gradient.
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32
Chemiosmosis
The process by which protons flow back into the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase, driving ATP production.
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33
ATP Synthase
An enzyme that synthesizes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate using the energy from the proton gradient.
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34
Competitive inhibition
A type of enzyme inhibition where an inhibitor competes with substrates for the active site.
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Noncompetitive inhibition
A type of inhibition where an inhibitor binds to an enzyme away from the active site, altering its function.
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Anabolic reactions
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy input.
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37
Catabolic reactions
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
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38
Feedback inhibition
A regulatory mechanism where the final product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an early step.
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39
Autotrophs
Organisms that produce their own organic molecules through photosynthesis.
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40
Heterotrophs
Organisms that consume organic compounds produced by other organisms.
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41
Cellular respiration
A series of metabolic reactions that extract energy from organic molecules.
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42
Dehydrogenation
The process where lost electrons are accompanied by protons.
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43
Electron carriers
Molecules that transport electrons during redox reactions and play a critical role in ATP production.
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44
Final electron acceptor
The molecule that receives electrons at the end of the electron transport chain, e.g., oxygen in aerobic respiration.
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45
P/O ratio
The amount of ATP synthesized per molecule of oxygen consumed.
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46
Oxidation without O2
The process occurring during anaerobic respiration and fermentation, using inorganic or organic molecules as electron acceptors.
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47
Methanogens
Organisms that reduce CO2 to methane, found in environments such as the guts of cattle.
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48
Sulfur-reducing prokaryotes
Organisms that reduce inorganic sulfate to hydrogen sulfide during anaerobic respiration.
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49
Lactic acid fermentation
A process where pyruvate is converted into lactic acid to regenerate NAD+ in the absence of oxygen.
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50
Ethanol fermentation
A process in yeast where pyruvate is converted into ethanol to regenerate NAD+.
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51
Feedback inhibition in glycolysis
The inhibition of phosphofructokinase by ATP and/or citrate when energy supplies are ample.
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52
Control points in the Citric Acid Cycle
Sites where key enzymes like pyruvate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase are regulated by high levels of NADH and ATP.
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53
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP to form ATP.
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54
Oxidative phosphorylation
The production of ATP via ATP synthesis powered by the proton gradient formed during electron transport.
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55
High-Energy Bonds
Bonds between the last two phosphate groups in ATP that store significant energy.
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56
G3P
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, a 3-carbon molecule formed during glycolysis.
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57
Coenzyme A
A molecule that carries acetyl groups into the citric acid cycle.
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58
Oxaloacetate
A four-carbon molecule that combines with acetyl-CoA to form citrate in the citric acid cycle.
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59
Malate
A four-carbon intermediate in the citric acid cycle that forms after the addition of water to fumarate.
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60
Citrate
A six-carbon molecule formed from acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle.
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Fumarate
A four-carbon intermediate in the citric acid cycle that is oxidized to regenerate oxaloacetate.
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62
Isocitrate
An isomer of citrate that is formed in the citric acid cycle before it is oxidized.
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63
Succinyl-CoA
A four-carbon intermediate formed during the citric acid cycle after the second oxidation step.
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64
Feedback inhibition
A mechanism where the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.
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65
Acetyl-CoA
The entry molecule into the citric acid cycle produced from the oxidation of pyruvate.
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66
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
An enzyme complex that catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.
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67
NADH
An electron carrier that stores energy by carrying high-energy electrons.
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68
FADH2
A reduced form of FAD, an electron carrier used in cellular respiration.
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69
GTP
A molecule similar to ATP that serves as an energy currency in cells.
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70
ATP production yield
The total number of ATP molecules produced from one glucose molecule.
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71
ATP synthase
A key enzyme that synthesizes ATP using energy from proton gradients.
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72
Proton gradient
A difference in proton concentration across a membrane that drives ATP synthesis.
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73
Allosteric site
A site on an enzyme where a molecule can bind and influence the enzyme's activity.
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74
Transition state
The state during a reaction where reactants are transformed into products, often stabilized by enzymes.
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75
Hydrolysis
The chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water, commonly seen in ATP breakdown.
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76
Cellular respiration stages
The four stages are glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain.
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Facilitated diffusion
The process by which molecules diffuse across membranes with the assistance of special proteins.
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78

Steps of Glycolysis

Glycolysis consists of three phases: Priming phase, Cleavage phase, and Energy payoff phase.

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79

Priming phase of Glycolysis

Involves the phosphorylation of glucose to become more reactive, using 2 ATP.

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80

Cleavage phase of Glycolysis

Glucose splits into two 3-carbon molecules, each being converted to a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

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81

Energy payoff phase of Glycolysis

ATP and NADH are produced from the oxidation of G3P.

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82

Pyruvate Oxidation

Converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, producing CO2 and NADH before entering the Citric Acid Cycle.

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83

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) Steps

Includes condensation, isomerization, oxidation, decarboxylation, and substrate-level phosphorylation steps.

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84

Final Electron Transport Chain (ETC) Process

Electrons are transferred through protein complexes, creating a proton gradient for ATP synthesis.

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85

Chemiosmosis process

Protons flow back into the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase to generate ATP.

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86

ATP Yield from Glycolysis

Net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH from one glucose molecule during glycolysis.

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87

Role of NADH in Cellular Respiration

NADH carries electrons to the electron transport chain to facilitate ATP production.

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88

Oxygen in Electron Transport Chain

Acts as the final electron acceptor, forming water and preventing the backup of the electron chain.

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89

Substrate-level Phosphorylation

The direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP

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90

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants, algae, and certain bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose) using carbon dioxide and water.

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91

Chloroplast

The organelle where photosynthesis occurs, containing thylakoid membranes and stroma.

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92

Light-dependent reactions

Reactions that require light, occurring in the thylakoid membranes, producing ATP and NADPH.

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93

Calvin Cycle

The light-independent reactions that synthesize organic molecules from CO2 using ATP and NADPH.

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94

Chlorophyll

The main pigment in plants that absorbs blue and red light, necessary for photosynthesis.

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95

Thylakoid membrane

Internal membranes in chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll and are the site of light-dependent reactions.

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96

Grana

Stacks of thylakoids in chloroplasts where light-dependent reactions occur.

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97

Stroma

The semi-liquid matrix surrounding thylakoids in chloroplasts, where the Calvin cycle takes place.

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98

Cyclic photophosphorylation

A process in photosynthesis that generates additional ATP without producing NADPH.

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99

Noncyclic photophosphorylation

A process that produces both ATP and NADPH during light-dependent reactions.

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100

Carbon fixation

The initial phase of the Calvin cycle where CO2 is fixed into a 3-carbon compound.

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