AP Psych Unit 2 Vocab

Neuroscience

an inter-disciplinary brain science, that works closely with other disciplines

Brain autopsy

examination of brain tissue after death to diagnose the specific neurodegenerative disorder of an individual

lesioning studies

used as research with the goal of establishing the function of the area the lesion occurred. generally performed on lab rats to measure the ability to learn new skills, then to transfer that learning to other situations.

prefrontal lobotomy

Operation that removes parts of the brain to control behavior, disconnects the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain.

Hemispherectomy

Brain surgery used to treat behavioral disorders or illnesses, removal of one of the halves of the brain. Control seizures in people who have epilepsy.

deep brain simulation

less invasive method of altering the brain to eliminate behavioral symptoms. Surgeon creates an opening in the skull, then carefully entered an electrode through the opening to stimulate a specific area.

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

noninvasive technique that alters brain activity. Involves the use of an electromagnetic wand that alters the magnetic fields that affect how the brain processes emotions in moods (treats, depression)

Brain scanning

Not used to treat disorders, rather they provide information about the structure of the brain or about the activity of the brain

X-rays

primarily show bones and other solid structures, especially useful when a person has broken bones

EEG

measurement of the electrical activity of the brain by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp. electrical output forms waves that may indicate things such as stages of sleep, seizures, or even tumors. Machine designed to record the brain wave patterns produced by electrical activity of the surface of the brain. Helps determine which areas of the brain are active during various mental tasks.

CT or CAT scan

two-dimensional x-ray photographs from different angles and using to create three dimensional representation of organs. Identifies a muscle or bone disorder, tumor or blood clot. It can identify critical problems quickly. Images are used to construct overall image of the brain.(relatively low resolution.

MRI scan

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed 3D images of the brain.

MEG

imaging technique used to measure the magnetic field produced by electrical activity in the brain by extremely sensitive devices. Brain sends electrical signals that generate magnetic fields (activity of neurons is the activity of the brain)

Functional MRI (fMRI)

measuring brain activity, detects the changes in blood, oxygenation and flow that occur in responses to neural activity (more oxygen equals increases to active area). Shows activity along with high resolution, structure image

PET scan

uses trace amounts of short-lived, radioactive material to map functional processes in the brain. researchers use PET scans to measure the total amount of energy at the brain uses during a particular activity.

Neuroplasticity

The ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma. (plasticity is stronger when we are young and reduces with age.)

functional plasticity

The brains ability to remove functions from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas

structural plasticity

The brains ability to actually change its physical structure as a result of learning

Split brain

two hemispheres of the brain communicate extensively through corpus callosum, when the hemispheres can't communicate, each side of the brain seems to act independently "split ", without awareness of the other. neuroscientist, Roger Sperry, and Michael Gazzaniga Studied split brain patients.

Nervous system

bodies, communication that work that consists of all nerve cells. Allows organisms to sense organize and react to information in the environment.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Coordinate the actions and interactions of the brain and spinal cord. It is the bodies main control center. The spinal cord is an information Highway connecting the peripheral nervous system to the brain

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

includes the sensory nerves outside the brain, and spinal cord that connects the CNS to the rest of the body. has two major divisions: motor pathway and sensory pathway

Motor pathway

major division of PNS. Signals from brain to muscles/glance.

Sensory pathway

major division of PNS. Signals from sensory receptors to the brain.

Somatic nervous system

includes the nerves that transmit signals from your brain to the skeletal muscles to allow voluntary movement. Responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to and from the CNS.

sensory neurons (afferent neurons)

carries information from the nerves to the central nervous system. These allow us to take and sensory information and send it to the brain and spinal cord.

motor neurons (efferent neurons)

Carry information from the brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body. Please allow us to take physical action in response to stimuli in the environment.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord, that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory input in motor output

Reflex arc

Signal is sent from a sensory organ to the spinal cord, which processes the information, instead of passing it onto the brain

Autonomic nervous system

regulates, involuntary, and unconscious actions (breathing, blood flow, digestion, heartbeat)

Sympathetic nervous system

emergency response system. If something alarms, and rages, or challenges, you, "fight, flight, or freeze." it accelerates your heartbeat, raises your blood pressure, etc, making you alert and ready for action.

Parasympathetic nervous system

functions to calm the person "rest and digest ." reduces body arousal energy, decreases blood flow to digestive organs and decrease his heart rate.

neuron (nerve cell)

specialize cell in the nervous system that receives in send messages with electrochemical signals. Chemical stimulate the neuron, the neuron creates electricity, then the neuron releases chemicals.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals in the brain that carry messages from one neuron to another

Glial cells

cells that provide physical support for the neurons to grow on and around (glue). They surround neurons get nutrients to the neurons, clean up the remains of neurons that have died and provide insulation.

Dendrites "Antenna"

Part of the neuron, branchlike extensions that received electrical messages from other cells

Receptor sites

Receive signals, receptor sites are the lock where the neurotransmitter molecule fits into

soma "life support"

The cell body of the neuron responsible to maintain the cell and keep the neuron functional (nucleus included)

axon "talker"

Fiber that extends from the cell body to the terminal endings. It's job is to carry messages out to other cells.

Myelin sheath

layer of fatty substance produced by certain glial cells. Wraps around the axon to protect the nerve fiber from damage, insulating sheath, speeds up neural messages.

Axon terminals

Tips at the end of the axon. Send signals to other neurons.

synapse "connect point"

meeting point between neurons. At the end of the terminal, there is a gap known as a synapse

synaptic vesicles

Store various neurotransmitters (chemicals) that are released at the synapse

neuro transmission

process by which information travels through a neuron. Each neuron receives an impulse in, must pass it onto the next neuron, and make sure the correct impulse continues on its path.

selectively permeable membrane

membrane that allows some substances to pass more easily than others and blocks the passage of some substances altogether

Action potential

A neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body. if simulation is not strong enough, your neuron doesn't fire.

Reuptake

after the neurotransmitter stimulate the receptors on the receiving neuron, the chemicals are taken back up into the sending neuron to be used again

Threshold

Level of stimulation that is so body uses to decide whether to tell the axon to create electricity

Resting state/resting potential

there is a difference between the charges outside of the cell and inside of the cell. waiting for threshold to be reached

All or none principle

when a neuron fires, it is at full strength, or none at all. Strength of action potential is constant. The neuron either does not reach the threshold or a full action potential is fired

Refractory Period

period of time during which a cell is incapable of repeating an action potential (recovery time)

Neuro transmitters

Chemical messenger that carries boost and balances signals between neurons or nerve cells in other cells in the body

excitatory neurotransmitters

Excite, connecting, neurons in cause them to fire

inhibitory neurotransmitters

prevents the next neurons from firing

acetylcholine

principal neurotransmitter involved in thought, learning and memory in the body. It is involved in activating muscle action. (excitatory)

Serotonin

connected to feelings of well-being and happiness. It regulates the sleep cycle along with melatonin. (inhibitory)

Dopamine

pleasure chemical of the brain. Released into the pleasure centers of the brain related to reward and motivation. (inhibitory)

Norepinephrine

associated with response to danger, attention and responding actions in the brain (excitatory)

GABA

Inhibitory transmitter that slows things down. Call me the central nervous system. Also contributes to motor control and vision.

Glutamate

major excitatory, neurotransmitter involved with most normal operations of the brain, including thinking, long-term memory and learning

Endorphins

relieve pain and stress, feelings of pleasure/euphoria (inhibitory)

Endocrine system

Consist of Glenn's that secrete chemical messengers called hormones into your blood. They travel to target organs where they bind a specific receptors. Essential to communication throughout the body.

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream

Pituitary gland

Regulate stress, growth and reproduction, including some parts of pregnancy and childbirth. Located in the core of the brain.

Thyroid gland

located inside the lower neck, secretes a hormone called thyroxine that regulates metabolism growth and appetite

adrenal glands

two glands on top of each kidney involved in stress response. releases, epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline) when people are under stress

gonads

sex glands. regulates sexual hormones, behavior, and sex characteristics. estrogen in women and testosterone in men

Oxytocin

powerful hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain, regulates social interaction and sexual reproduction

Pineal gland

locate it in the brain near the back. secretes a hormone called melatonin, which regulates sleep and body rhythms

Epinephrine

Hormone produced in high stress or exciting situations, gives you physical boost in heightened awareness

Cortisol

bodies main stress hormone, works with certain parts of your brain to control your mood, motivation and fear

Biological psychology

tends to stress the importance of genetics and biological (nature)

Heredity

The sum of all biological processes by which particular characteristics are transmitted from parents to their offspring

genes

Segments of DNA molecules are the functional units of heredity. Make up the bodies blueprint

Epigenetics

Study of heritable changes in gene expression. City of changes in gene expression due from non-genetic causes.

Methylation

Process by which genes turn off due to protein interaction

sensitive period

A particular environment is important at a particular time in life for the genetic information to be expressed for some behaviors or physical characteristics

monozygotic twins (identical)

Result from a single fertilized egg that splits into. Are genetically identical.

dizygotic twins (fraternal)

developed from two zygotes and share 50% of the DNA

Heritability

The extent to which differences in the appearance of a trait across several people can be accounted for by differences in their genes. (the closer to one the more heritable.)

Altered state of consciousness

a change in one's normal mental state as a result of trauma or accident with medication , drugs

Circadian rhythm

The cycle of physiological and biological processes that fluctuate on a roughly 24 hour timetable (16 hours a week in eight hours of sleep)

The wake/sleep cycle

sleep has a biological rhythm cycles every 90 to 110 minutes. five distinct stages. The pattern occurs 3 to 5 times per night.

beta waves, awake/alter

between 15 and 30 hz. Shows awake, normal alert, consciousness

alpha waves, light sleep

between 7 and 12 hz. shows that your physically and mentally relaxed, aware but drowsy

theta waves

between 4 and 7 hz. shows reduced consciousness, deep meditation, light sleep

Non-REM Stage 1: Light Sleep

transition period between wakefulness and sleep, drifting in and out of sleep. Theta wave activity increases and alpha, wave activity fades away. (when sensation of falling occurs)

Non-REM Stage 2: Sleep Spindles

body temperature will drop heart rate, slow, breathing, more shallow and irregular. (when sleep talking occurs)

non-REM Stage 3 & Stage 4 "Deep Sleep"

Slow-wave sleep, delta waves, begin to appear more often.

REM sleep " paradoxical sleep"

rapid eye movement, and your muscle become almost paralyzed brain waves as if we are awake

REM or Sleep Paralysis "Waking Nightmare"

The presence or persistence of features of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep during the transition into or out of sleep.

REM rebound

lengthening and increasing frequency and depth of rapid eye, movement sleep, which occurs after periods of sleep deprivation

Microsleep

A fleeting, uncontrollable brief episode of sleep, which can last anywhere from a single fraction of a second up to 10 full seconds. We are often unaware that microsleep has occurred.

narcolepsy "sleep attack"

sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day without warning. It is triggered by intense emotion.

Night terrors

relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences extreme fear, and screams or runs around during deep sleep without waking fully

psychoactive drug

a chemical that changes our state of consciousness, particularly our perception and moods

agonist

drug that binds to receptors in the brain and activated the receptors they bind to

antagonists

drugs that block the receptor sites

blood-brain barrier

controls which molecules can pass from the blood to the brain

depressents

slow the activity of the central nervous system