Psychology: Cognitive Psychology

Classical Conditioning

\-a simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus

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\-this occurs when two stimuli have been associated with each other

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\-first demonstrated by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov

Pavlov’s Dog

\-**GOAL:** to show that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound is repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food

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\-**PROCESS:** first the dogs were presented with the food, they salivated, and then Pavlov sounded the bell before giving the food

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\-**RESULT:** the dogs had learned to associate the bell with the food and the sound of the bell and salivation was triggered by the sound of the bell

Unconditioned Stimulus

\-a stimulus that leads to an automatic response

\-**PAVLOV’S DOG:** the food

Unconditioned Response

\-an automatic response to a stimulus

\-**PAVLOV’S DOG:** salivation

Neutral Stimulus

\-a stimulus that first elicits no response

\-**PAVLOV’S DOG:** the bell

Conditioned Stimulus

\-a situation in which one stimulus is given just before another signal

\-**PAVLOV’S DOG:** the bell

Conditioned Response

\-when the conditioned stimulus is connected to the unconditioned stimulus

\-**PAVLOV’S DOG:** salivation

5 Things Classical Conditioning can Cause

\-taste aversion

\-extinction

\-spontaneous recovery

\-generalization

\-discrimination

Extinction

when the conditioned stimulus is disconnected from the unconditioned stimulus, therefore it no longer causes the conditioned response

Spontaneous Recovery

revival of the response

Generalization

act of responding in the same ways to the stimulus that seems to be similar

Discrimination

weaker version of a generalization

Operant Conditioning

people and animals learn to do certain things and not do others because of the results of what they do, i.e. they learn from the consequences of their actions (voluntary response)

4 Things Used to Operant Condition

\-positive reinforcers

\-negative reinforcers

\-punishments

\-rewards

Positive Reinforcers

increase the frequency of the behaviour they follow when they are applied

Negative Reinforcers

increase the frequency of the behaviour when they are removed

Punishments

unwanted events that, when they are applied, decrease the frequency of the behaviour they follow

Rewards

uses knowledge of the organism, whereas positive reinforcement does not

3 Types of Memory

\-episodic

\-semantic

\-implicit

Episodic Memory

\-memory of specific event

\-event took place in the person’s presence, the person experienced the event

\-”flashbulb memories”

\-example of explicit memory

Semantic Memory

\-memory of facts, words, concepts

\-meaning and language

\-remember “what”, but not “how”, “where”, or “when”

\-example of explicit memory

Implicit Memory

\-implied or not clearly stated

\-practiced skills and learning habits

\-e.g. throwing a ball

3 Ways Memories are Stored

\-maintenance rehearsal

\-elaborative rehearsal

\-organizational systems

Maintenance Rehearsal

mechanical or rote repetition of the information in order to keep from forgetting

Elaborative Rehearsal

relating information to other information you already know well

Organizational Systems

organizing encoded information into a system for you to remember, i.e. in steps or chronological order

3 Stages of Memory

\-sensory

\-short-term

\-long-term

Sensory Memory Stage

immediate, initial recording of data that enters through our senses

Short-Term Memory Stage

\-after iconic and echoic memories are held briefly in sensory, they are transferred to short-term memory

\-fades rapidly, if you want it longer you have to rehearse and repeat

Long -Term Memory Stage

maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal is one way to transfer information from short to long term memory

2 Types of Extreme Forgetting

\-repression

\-amnesia

Repression

forgetting on purpose

Amnesia

severe memory loss due to trauma to the brain

Retrograde Amnesia

forget the period leading up to the traumatic event

Antrograde Amnesia

inability to store new memories after a traumatic event

Infantile Amnesia

forgetting memories of infancy because of the development of the brain

4 Ways to Improve Memory

\-drill practice

\-relate to existing knowledge

\-form unusual associations

\-use mnemonic devices

3 Kinds of Thinking

\-convergent

\-divergent

\-metacognition

Convergent Thinking

\-look at a problem and narrow down to the best possible solution

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\-e.g. multiple choice questions, standardized tests

Divergent Thinking

\-allows the mind to associate more freely to various elements of problems

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\-e.g. showing a person a photo and asking them to create a caption for it

Metacognition

\-consists of planning, evaluating, and monitoring mental activities

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\-e.g. planning a project, reflecting on how you completed an assignment

5 Types of Problem Solving

\-trial and error

\-difference reduction

\-means-end analysis

\-working backwards

\-analogies

2 Types of Obstacles in Problem Solving

\-mental set

\-functional fixedness

Mental Set Obstacle

the tendency to respond to new problems with an approach that was successfully used with a similar problem

Functional Fixedness Obstacle

the tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for

2 Types of Reasoning

\-deductive

\-inductive

Deductive Reasoning

\-the conclusion is true if the premises are true

\-the conclusion is always true if the premises are true

\-if the premises are incorrect, then the conclusion may be incorrect as well

Inductive Reasoning

\-reasoning from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion

\-more of a hypothesis rather than a conclusion

\-often impossible to prove an assumption reached by this reasoning to be true; we can only prove if it’s false

4 Basic Elements of Language

\-phonemes

\-morphemes

\-syntax

\-semantics

Phonemes

sounds; English uses about 43 phonemes

Morphemes

basic units of meaning; prefixes, suffixes, plurals

Syntax

grammar

Semantics

relationship between language and the things depicted in the language

5 Theories of Intelligence

\-Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory

\-Thurstone’s Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

\-Gardener’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

\-Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

\-Peter Salovey and John Mayer’s Theory of Emotional Intelligence

Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory

\-general intelligence underlines all of our intellectual abilities (to reason and solve problems)

\-specific intelligence accounts for people’s specific abilities

Thurstone’s Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

there are 7 primary mental abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, facility with numbers, memory, reasoning, perceptual speed

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

proposed 9 new intelligences: verbal/linguistic, visual/spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal intelligence (sensitivity to others), intrapersonal intelligence (insight into one’s own inner feelings), naturalistic intelligence, existential, logical-mathematical

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

breaks down intelligence into 3 factors: analytical, creative, practical

Peter Salovey and John Mayer’s Theory of Emotional Intelligence

5 factors are involved in success in school or on the job: self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, empathy, people/social skills

2 Intelligence Tests

\-Stanford-Binet Scale

\-The Wechsler Scales

Stanford-Binet Scale

devised a test to seek a person’s mental age, the intellectual level at which a child is functioning

The Wechsler Scales

\-doesn’t use “mental age”, but still uses the term “IQ”

\-scored by comparing your child’s individual performance against a group of other students born within a four-month age range

3 Types of Awareness

\-sensory

\-direct inner

\-sense of self

Sensory Awareness

\-you are conscious of your environment and the senses you experience

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\-when you focus on a particular stimulus, it is called selective attention

Direct Inner Awareness

\-you are conscious of thoughts, feelings, emotions, without any sensory stimuli

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\-e.g. you blink when you step from the dark into the light, but you cannot feel your pupils growing smaller

Sense of Self

\-you are aware of yourself as an individual and your existence

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\-e.g. you’re able to stay firm in your self-worth even after losing a job

4 Different Levels of Consciousness

\-preconscious

\-unconscious

\-non-conscious

\-altered states

Preconscious Level

\-ideas that are not in your awareness now, but you can recall them

\-do this by directing your inner awareness to them

Unconscious Level

\-sometimes called subconscious

\-information is hidden from the conscious mind

\-unavailable to awareness under most circumstances

Non-Conscious Level

basic biological functions like breathing, heart rate, etc…

Altered States of Consciousness

\-aka the waking state

\-a person’s sense of self, or sense of the world, changes

\-can include sleep, daydreaming, meditation, hypnosis, hallucinations

Sleep Cycle Stage 1

\-when we’re awake and alert we emit ==BETA== waves

\-your eyes are closed, but it’s easy to wake you up

\-lightest level of sleep

\-dreams resemble brief images like vivid photos, most likely to be remembered

\-lasts for 5-10mins

\-produces @@ALPHA@@ waves, which are relatively low frequency

\-as you continue through stage 1, there is an increase in THETA waves

Sleep Cycle Stage 2

\-you are in light sleep

\-your heart rate slows and your body temperature drops, body is getting ready for deep sleep

\-lasts for 10-25mins

\-body goes into a state of deep relaxation, THETA waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles

Sleep Cycle Stages 3 and 4

\-deep sleep stages, if someone wakes you in these stages you would feel disoriented for a few minutes

\-the body repairs and regrows tissues, builds bone and muscle, and strengthens the immune system

\-brain waves change from THETA waves to %%DELTA%% waves

\-lasts for 20-45mins

\-30 mins into stage 4 we begin to retreat back to stage 3, 2, 1

\-only 90mins have passed

\-all of the sudden, breathing more irregularly, blood pressure rises, heart beats faster

\-enter R.E.M. sleep

Sleep Cycle Stage 5 (R.E.M. Sleep)

\-called rapid eye movement because beneath our closed lids our eyes move rapidly

\-usually happens 90mins after you fall asleep

\-first period typically lasts 10mins

\-each R.E.M. stages gets longer, and the final one may last up to an hour

\-heart rate and breathing quickens

\-brain waves are similar to stage 4

\-you can have intense dreams since your brain is more active

\-important because it stimulates the areas of the brain that help with learning and is associated with increased production of proteins

\-during a typical 8 hour night of sleep, most people go through these stages about 5 times which = 1 sleep cycle

Freudian View on Dreams

\-Freud believed dreams reflect a person’s unconscious wishes and urges

\-fears and repressed feelings may show up in your dreams but in different forms (symbolic)

Biopsychological View on Dreams

\-during sleep, neurons fire in the part of the brain that controls movement and vision

\-these neuron bursts are random, and the brain tries to make sense of them by weaving a story

6 Sleep Problems

\-insomnia

\-nightmares and night terrors

\-sleepwalking

\-sleep apnea

\-narcolepsy

\-sleep paralysis

Insomnia

makes it hard to fall asleep, hard to stay asleep, or cause you to wake up too early and not be able to get back to sleep

Nightmares and Night Terrors

\-nightmares are unpleasant dreams which the sleeper awakes from

\-night terrors are considered a parasomnia, a type of disorder marked by abnormal occurences during sleep, can involve sudden bouts of intense fear, screaming, and thrashing around while still asleep

Sleepwalking

\-aka somnambulism

\-involves getting up and walking around while in a state of sleep

Sleep Apnea

when your breathing stops and starts while you sleep

Narcolepsy

characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden attacks of sleep

Sleep Paralysis

\-a feeling of being conscious but unable to move

\-occurs when a person passes between stages of wakefulness and sleep

\-during these transitions, you may be unable to move or speak for a few seconds up to a few minutes

\-more common in women

4 Types of Drugs

\-stimulants

\-depressants

\-opioids

\-hallucinogens

Stimulants

\-**MECHANISM:** block the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the synapses of the CNS

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\-**SYMPTOMS:** enhanced mood and increased energy

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\-**EXAMPLES:** caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, meth

Depressants

\-**MECHANISM:** change consciousness by increasing production of the neurotransmitter GABA and decreasing the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, usually at the level of the thalamus and the reticular formation

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\-**SYMPTOMS:** calming effects, sleep, pain relief, slowed heart rate and respiration

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\-**EXAMPLES:** alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, toxic inhalants

Opioids

\-**MECHANISM:** chemical makeup is similar to endorphins, the neurotransmitter that serve as the body’s “natural pain reducers”

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\-**SYMPTOMS:** slowing of many body functions, constipation, respiratory and cardiac depression, and the rapid development of tolerance

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\-**EXAMPLES:** opium, morphine, heroin, fentanyl

Hallucinogens

\-**MECHANISM:** chemical composition is similar to the neurotransmitters serotonin and epinephrine, and they act primarily by mimicking them

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\-**SYMPTOMS:** altered consciousness, hallucinations

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\-**EXAMPLES:** marijuana, LSD, mescaline, PCP, peyote