social psychology exam 1

self discrepancy theory

self discrepancy theory

perception of discrepancies bw a persons self concept and varioys guides is linked to spf negative emotional states

actual self

that which we are now

ideal self

that which we would ideally like to be

ought self

that which we think we ought to be

self esteem

how you regard yourself

self compassion

an orientation to care for yourself, affects how you deal w life events

self reference

self relevant info is processed faster and remembered better

confirmatory hypothesis testing

pp selectively draw on info to support hypothesis

counterfactual thinking

easier it is to mentally undo an event, the strong the rxn to that event

schema

cognitive structure pp havew to organize their knowledge about the social world by themes and subjects

person schema

contain pp understanding of psych of indv focusing on traits and goals

self schema

knowlege about ourself

role schema

cognitive structuure that org ones knowlege about behavior

achieve role

student doctor, etc are examples of

ascribe role

women, daughter, etc are ex of

event schema (script)

appropriate sequences of events in well known situations

internal attribution

the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality

external attribution

The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation

Kelley's Covariation Model

a theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether the behavior occurs

consensus, distinctiveness, consensus

consensus

extent that others act similar

if others agree: high

distinctiveness

extent that the situation is highly irregular or unusual

if person d.n. act same to other stim: high

there something distinct about stim: high

consistency

how the person reacts to the stim on other occations

behav is constant w that stim: high

int

int/ext attribution

low consensus

low distinctiveness

high consistency

ext

int/ext attribution

high consensus

high distinctiveness

high consistency

fundamental attribution error

tendency to focus on the role of the personal causes and underestimate the impact of the situation on others behavior

due to

- perceptual bias

- motivation (beliefs in a just world)

- automatic dispositional attribution

- culture

actor observer effect

tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes and the behavior of others to personal factors

multiple causal factors

Causal factors rarely (if ever) act alone.

Cause is the cumulative effect of multiple factors acting together.

discounting principle

process of reducing a belief in one potential cause of behavior bc there is another viable cause

social psychology

The scientific study of how people influence each other's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

thinking influence behavior

Social psychology focuses on three main areas:

social _________

social _________

social _________

sociology

The study of human society and social behavior at the group level.

Anthropology

The study of culture and human behavior over time.

clinical psychology (counseling psychology)

A subfield of psychology that helps people who have maladaptive or problematic

thoughts and behaviors.

positive psychology

The scientific study of human strengths, virtues, positive emotions, and achievements.

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

kurt lewin

1890-1947; father of social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership syles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities

interaction

The combination of several influences on an outcome, such as the influence of both personality and

environment on behavior.

nature

Influences on our thoughts and behaviors that come from biology or physiology, such as genetics,

hormones, or brain differences.

nurture

Influences on our thoughts and behaviors that come from biology or physiology, such as genetics,

hormones, or brain differences.

False Dichotomy

A situation presented as two opposing and mutually exclusive options when both options may work

together, such as the role of nature and nurture in determining human behavior.

comparative

Species-level comparisons of social behavior usually used to determine the

uniqueness of human behavior.

Action research

the application of scientific principles to social problems solving in the real world

random assignment to groups

A technique in which every participant in an experiment has equal probability of

being assigned to each group. This means that extraneous variables are also likely to be evenly distributed.

single blind experiment

A tool used by psychologists to reduce bias where the participants do not know whether

they are in the control group or the experimental group. This reduces the likelihood that hopes or expectations can

influence outcomes.

double blind experiment

A tool used by psychologists to reduce bias where neither the participants nor the

researchers know whether the participants are in the control group or the experimental group. This reduces the

likelihood that hopes or expectations can influence outcomes.

falsification

A tool used by psychologists to reduce bias where neither the participants nor the

researchers know whether the participants are in the control group or the experimental group. This reduces the

likelihood that hopes or expectations can influence outcomes.

Critical thinking

The ability to analyze, apply, and explore ideas in new and open-minded ways.

basic research

increase our understanding of psychology by creating and improving the

theories that predict social behavior.

applied research

translate the findings of basic researchers into social action and apply

psychological ideas to the real world.

scientific method

A systematic way of creating knowledge by observing, forming a hypothesis, testing a hypothesis,

and interpreting the results. The scientific method helps psychologists conduct experiments and formulate theories

in a logical and objective manner.

hypothesis

A specific statement made by a researcher before conducting a study about the expected outcome of

the study based on prior observation. Hypotheses are falsifiable statements that researchers believe to be true (see

constructs

Theoretical ideas that cannot be directly observed, such as attitudes, personality, attraction, or how we

think.

operationalize

The process of specifying how a construct will be defined and measured.

archival data

Stored information that was originally created for some other purpose not related to research that can

later be used by psychologists, such as census data.

naturalistic observation

A research design where scientists gather data by observing people in the environment

within which the behavior naturally occurs (for instance, observing leadership styles in a corporate office).

reactivity

When people change their behavior simply because they're being observed (see social desirability bias

and good subject bias ).

participant observation

A technique used during naturalistic observation where scientists covertly disguise

themselves as people belonging in an environment in an effort to observe more authentic social behaviors.

survey

A research design where researchers collect data by asking participants to respond to questions or

statements.

self report scale

A type of survey item where participants give information about themselves by selecting their own

responses (see survey ).

social desirability bias

The tendency for participants to provide dishonest responses so that others have positive

impressions of them.

case study

: A type of research where scientists conduct an in-depth study on a single example of an event or a

single person to test a hypothesis.

PsycINFO database

The most comprehensive database of research books and journal articles across

psychological subdisciplines.

preexperiment

A research design in which a single group of people is tested to see whether some kind of treatment

has an effect, such as a one-shot case study or a one-group pretest-posttest.

one shot case study

A type of preexperimental research design that explores an event, person, or group in great

detail by identifying a particular case of something or trying a technique once, then observing the outcome.

one group pretest protest design

: A type of preexperimental research design in which the expected outcome is

measured both before and after the treatment to assess change.

confounding variables

Co-occurring influences that make it impossible to logically determine causality.

]

such as bad weather or the inability to concentrate on a survey due to illness, provide

alternate explanations for the outcome of an experiment that make it impossible to know whether the results are due

to the independent variable (see internal validity ).

experiment

A research design where scientists randomly assign participants to groups and systematically compare

changes in behavior. Experiments allow scientists to control confounding variables and establish cause-effect

relationships.

random assignment to experimental condition

A solution to the problem of confounding variables by creating

equivalent groups at the start of an experiment. Random assignment cancels out the influence of confounds by

distributing them equally across groups.

independent variable

A variable that is manipulated at the beginning of an experiment to determine its effect on the

dependent variable.

dependent variable

The measured outcome of an experiment that is affected by the independent variable.

pretest posttest control group design

: A type of true experiment where the dependent variable is tested both before

and after the experimental manipulation.

quasiexperiment

a group of participants in a true experiment that serves as a neutral or baseline group that receives no

treatment.

control group

A type of true experiment where the dependent variable is measured for two or

more groups, including a control group, only after the experimental manipulation.

posttest only control group design

An experimental research design where the levels or conditions of the independent

variable are different for each group of participants; patterns are found by comparing the responses betweterm-219en groups.

between participant design

An experimental research design where the same group of participants all experience

each experimental condition; patterns are found by comparing responses for each condition.

within participant design

An experimental research design where the same group of participants all experience

each experimental condition; patterns are found by comparing responses for each condition.

order effect

A research design where outcomes are compared across different groups that have not been

formed through random assignment but instead occur naturally.

correlation design

A research design where scientists analyze two or more variables to determine their relationship

or association with each other.

statistics

Mathematical analyses that reveal patterns in data, such as correlations, t tests, and analyses of variance.

standard deviation

The amount of variability in a distribution. In other words, how widely dispersed the data are.

t test

A statistical test that uses both the mean and the standard deviation to compare the difference between two

groups.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

: A statistical test that uses both the mean and the standard deviation to compare the

differences between three or more groups.

correlation

: A type of statistical test that determines whether two or more variables are systematically associated with

each other by identifying linear patterns in data.

scatterplot

A graph that demonstrates the relationship between two quantitative variables by displaying plotted

participant responses.

correlation coefficient

A number that indicates the relationship or association between two quantitative variables. It

ranges from -1.00 to +1.00.

positive correlation

A positive correlation occurs when the correlation coefficient is between +0.01 and +1.00. In thiscase, as one variable increases, the other also increases.

negative correlation

A negative correlation occurs when the correlation coefficient is between -0.01 and -1.00. In

this case, as one variable increases, the other decreases.

statistical significance

The likelihood that the results of an experiment are due to the independent variable, not

chance (see p value ).

p value

A number that indicates the probability or likelihood that a pattern of data would have been found by random

chance. Commonly seen as a variation of " p < .05," which, in this example, means there is a less than 5% probability

the patterns are due to chance.

reliability

consistency of measurement

internal validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

the extent to which results are interpreted in an

accurate way.

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

the extent to which results could apply to other people or settings.

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

diverse

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

institutional review boards (IRBs)

Committees of people who consider the ethical implications of any study before

giving the researcher approval to begin formal research.

American Psychological Association (APA)

A large organization of professional psychologists who provide those in

the field with information in the form of scholarly publications, citation style guidelines, and ethical standards for

research.

informed consent

Participants' right to be told what they will be asked to do and whether there are any potential

dangers or risks involved before a study begins.

deception

: Hiding the true nature of an experiment from a participant to prevent a change in how the participant

would respond.

right to withdraw

: The right participants have to stop being in a study at any time, for any reason, or to skip questions

on a survey if they are not comfortable answering them.