Quizlet Pankow - MCAT Foundational Concepts 8, 9, and 10

Self-Concept

--a term used to refer to how someone thinks about, perceives or even evaluates themselves.

--to be self-aware is to have this.

The development of this has two concepts:

-the existential self

-the categorical self

--is consistent or constant.

--derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy.

Existential Self

--the most basic part of self-concept.

--it's a sense of being separate and distinct from others.

--it is understanding and having awareness that the self is constant.

ex. when a baby plays w/ the toys above the crib, it realizes that it is separate from those objects.

Categorical Self

--comes after realizing existential self.

--it's becoming aware that even though we're separate and distinct objects or entities or beings, we also exist in the world. We exist w/ other objects and beings and entities, in that, each of these objects has properties.

--at this point, the baby is growing and becoming aware that he or she is an object w/ properties.

ex. young toddlers categorize themselves by age or gender.

As they grow older, they start to categorize themselves by including some more internal psychological traits. Comparing ourselves, making evaluations w/ other people. (ex. categorize by our careers or by the type of person that we want to be)

Carl Rogers

--believed that the self-concept had three diff. components:

1. self-image

2. self-esteem

3. ideal self

Self-image

--the view we have of ourselves. What we believe we are.

Self esteem

goes along w/ self-worth.

--the regard or respect that a person has for oneself.

--how you feel about yourself.

--how much value we place on ourselves.

--how much we love ourselves.

Ideal Self

--what we wish to be.

--what we aspire to be.

Social Identity Theory

--2 parts:

1. personal identity--the things that are unique to each person, like personality traits.

2. social identity--the groups you belong to in our community

3 step mental process: the steps we use when we're evaluating ourselves and other in the relationship b/w personal and social identities.

3 Step Mental Process of Social Identity Theory

1. ALL HUMANS CATEGORIZE THEMSELVES in order to understand objects and identify them.

ex. social categories like race.

(not all people belong to one category)

2. IDENTIFICATION-- when we adopt the identity of the group we have categorized ourselves as to belonging. (conforming to norms)

self-esteem starts to become bound w/ this group identification and sense of belonging.

3. SOCIAL COMPARISON-- after we categorize and identify, we're going to start comparing ourselves w/ other groups.

(we do this to maintain our self-esteem.)

This mental process is very critical in understanding prejudice. Once 2 groups identify themselves as separate and rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem.

Self efficacy

--the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required in certain situations.

--a person's belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation.

--your confidence in succeeding.

--developed by Bandura.

--much more specific than self-esteem.

--a person w/ low self-esteem can have high sense of self-efficacy (perfectionists) and vice versa.

--can have an impact on everything from psychological states to behavior to motivation.

--plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached.

2 Types:

1. people w/ strong self-efficacy-- R - Recover quickly

I - strong Interests

S - strong Sense of commitment

E - Enjoy problems or challenging tasks

2. people w/ weak self-efficacy

F - focus on personal Failings

A - Avoid

L - Lose confidence in personal abilities

L - Lack

We look at these sources to determine whether the person will have a strong or weak sense of self-efficacy:

1. Mastery of Experiences - performing a task successfully

2. Social Modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves successfully complete a task raises our beliefs that we, too, have the capabilities to master comparable activities, and also succeed.

3. Social Persuasion - getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and focus on giving the best effort at the task in hand.

4. Psychological Responses - learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficulty or challenging tasks.

Locus of Control

--the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives.

Includes:

Internal locus

External locus

Internal locus

= you control your fate.

--when a person believes he or she can influence events and their outcomes. They attribute the results to their own traits.

--people tend to be happier, less depressed, and less stressed.

External locus

= others, luck control your fate.

--when a person blames outside forces for everything. They attribute events to environmental traits or causes.

Different Types of Identities (5)

Race/ethnicity =color/culture

Gender = your masculinity/femininity

Sexual orientation = who you are attracted to

Age = how old you feel

Class = how rich you are

Development

--the series of age related changes that happen over the course of a life span.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Moral Development Theory

--based upon cognitive development (similar to Vygotsky's)

--looked at how we develop our morals throughout life.

--focused on moral reasoning or why people think about the difference b/w right and wrong.

--right vs. wrong

--HEINZ DILEMMA

--3 levels of moral reasoning

Heinz Dilemma

--Mr Heinz's wife was very sick and a chemist discovered the cure and was charging Heinz 10x more than he had.

He got money from family and friends and was still half of it. He plead to the chemist asking if he can pay him back the rest later because his wife was very sick and needed it. The chemist refused.

Later that night, Heinz broke into the chemist's office and stole the drug to save his wife.

Moral Theory of Identity Development

=Kohlberg

= development of moral thinking by cognitive reasoning, resolving moral dilemmas and the concept of right and wrong.

3 stages of morality:

Preconventional

Conventional

Postconventional

Pre-conventional Morality

(preadolescent)

--centered on consequences.

Obedience/Punishment: fear of punishment.

--authority is outside the individual, and reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions.

--children see rules as fixed and absolute.

Individualism/Exchange: children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities.

Self-Interest: desire to gain reward.

aka the pre-moral stage

Conventional Morality

(adolescent)

--social roles

Good boy/good girl: the child is good in order to be seen as being good by other people.

Conformity: seeks approval of others. ex. good boys don't steal.

Law and order: maintaining social order. The child becomes aware of the wider rules of society.

--judgments, concern, obeying rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Post-conventional Morality

(adult)

--social rules

--Social Contract: individual rights. ex. everyone has a right to live.

--individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, more on individual rights and justice for the greater good.

--individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for the good of the greater number of people, there are times that this law in order still may work against the interest of particular people.

--Universal Human Ethics: people develop their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. Abstract principles. Ex. Gandhi, MLK. - believing in universal human rights and not caring about the consequences from the authorities.

Sigmund Freud

--Psychosexual Theory of Identity Development

--focused on how personality develops.

--believed that early childhood was the the most important period of personality development.

--believed that most of our personality is established by the age of 5.

--said that early experiences play a large role in personality development and that continues to influence behavior later in life.

Psychosexual Theory of Identity Development

=Freud

--personality development at childhood (first 5 years)

--our sexuality and libido (sex drive) influences our psychology, and manifests differently as we develop.

--Fixation (overindulgence or frustration) during a stage leads to problems later on.

--5 STAGES

--each stage is associated w/ a particular conflict that has to be resolved in order for the person to successfully advance to the next stage.

--first 4 stages: focus is solely on individual's needs

last stage: focus is in the welfare of others.

--fixation of libido is focused on diff. parts of the body (depending on what stage we're at, there's going to be a certain fixation of this energy at a certain body part).

Libido

--a natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind.

--sexual desire

--depending on what stage we're at, there's going to be a certain fixation of this energy at a certain body part

5 Stages of Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Old Age Parrots Love Grapes

Oral Stage

Anal Stage

Phallic Stage

Latent Stage

Genital Stage

Oral Stage

(0-1)

--we like to feel orally, like sucking, biting, putting things in our mouth. Fixation at this stage leads to excessive dependency and aggression later on.

--libido fixation is focused on the mouth.

--the baby's primary source of interaction occurs through their mouth.

--the infant derives his or her pleasure from oral simulation through the activities such as tasting and sucking.

--the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort from parents through this oral simulation.

--if there's a fixation or conflict that occurs here, through the weaning process, the baby has to learn to wean off in order to advance to the next stage.

--if there's a conflict in this process, the child becomes less dependent upon the caretaker.

Adult fixation personality examples is people that smoke, or bite their nails, or over eat.

Anal Stage

(1-3)

--we like to feel anally, like defecating. Fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or sloppiness.

--fixation is focused on the anus, in controlling the bladder and bowel movements.

--positive experiences in this stage can help serve the basis for people to feel competent and productive and creative adults.

Phallic Stage

(3-6)

--children are beginning to discover the difference b/w the males and females

--males love mom and envy dad (Oedipal conflict). Females love dad and envy mom (Electra conflict).

--fixation is focused on the genitals.

--this fixation is resolved through the process of identification, where the child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics of their same-sex parents. (little boys will look up to their fathers, and little girls up to their mothers)

--fixation can transform into adulthood if not resolved and cause sexual dysfunction.

Oedipal conflict/complex

--in Freud's Phallic Stage

--males view their fathers as a rival for their mother's affections, wanting to possess her and the desire to replace the father.

--males love mom and envy dad

Electra conflict/complex

--in Freud's Phallic Stage

--females view their mothers as a rival for their father's affections, wanting to possess him and the desire to replace the mother.

--females love dad and envy mom

Latent Stage

(6-12(puberty))

--upon resolution of the Oedipal/Electra conflict.

--libido is present but not necessarily focused on any body part.

--libido is starting to be directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions, and developing new skills.

--this stage is really important in the development of social and communication skills.

--any fixation at this point doesn't really develop into an adult fixation.

Genital Stage

(12 and above)

--fixation is focused on the genitals.

--enters heterosexual relationship starting at puberty.

--individual starts developing strong sexual interests to reach sexual maturity towards the opposite sex that lasts well into their life.

--individual's interest is in the welfare of others.

--goal of this stage is to establish a balance b/w the various life areas.

--Sexual traumas in early stages lead to homosexuality, asexuality or fetishism.

The id

--controls impulses (sexual and aggressive) and is associated with instinctual behavior.

The superego

--involved in imposing morals.

The ego

--mediates the two other constructs (superego and id) to form a balanced, realistic identity.

Self-identity develops here, according to Freud.

Eric Erikson

Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development

----focused on how personality develops.

--emphasized the role of culture and society.

--proposed that personality development occurs through one's entire lifespan.

--believed that each stage of development was focused on overcoming a conflict that involves differences b/w an individual and the needs of society.

--8 stage theory where in each stage, people faced new challenges and the stages outcome depends on how people handle these challenges.

Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development

=Erikson

= social interactions shape psychology. Conflicts caused by social demands causes problems later on.

--8 stage theory where in each stage, people faced new challenges and the stages outcome depends on how people handle these challenges.

Erikson's Psychosocial Conflicts

Trust/mistrust (0-1)

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3)

Initiative vs. guilt (3-6)

Industry vs. inferiority (6-12)

Identity vs. role confusion (12-20)

Intimacy vs. isolation (20-40)

Generativity vs. stagnation (40-65)

Integrity vs. despair (65+)

Trust vs. mistrust

(0-1)

--a baby is uncertain about the world they live in. So in order to resolve these feelings of uncertainty, the baby looks toward their primary caregiver or their parents for consistent care and stability. If child receives this consistency of care, they're going to start developing trust and a sense of security.

--hope - the infant has hope that when new crises arises there is a possibility that people will be there as a source of support.

--can I trust others? Conflict leads to later paranoia, and the development of suspicion or fear and mistrust.

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

(1-3)

--autonomy = independence.

--Erikson says that it's critical that parents allow children to have independence, to explore their limits within an encouraging environment.

--can I be myself? Conflict leads to external locus of control.

--if the child is overly criticized or overly controlled, they start to feel inadequately in their ability to survive (lacking self esteem and feeling shame or doubt in their abilities).

Initiative vs guilt

(3-5)

--children assert themselves even more, more frequently.

--purpose - children feel they have a sense of purpose in what they do and the choices and decisions they make.

--can I act? Conflict leads to either being too afraid to act (guilt) or overcompensating by showing off

--if a child is made to feel they are annoying to other people, they'll start to act more as a follower vs. having that self initiative and drive and purpose.

--some guilt is necessary. The child needs to have limits.

Industry vs inferiority

(6-12)

--teachers take an important role here.

--the child gains greater significance and greater self esteem, and they're gonna try to win approval from others, from teachers, from authorities, by demonstrating specific competencies that they think are valued.

--competence or pride is developed.

--can I be competent? Conflict leads to low self esteem and self efficacy

--if child's initiative is not encouraged or restricted, then the child's gonna start feeling inferior or doubting their own abilities, and may not be able to reach their full potential (INFERIORITY)

--some failure is necessary so the child can develop modesty.

Identity vs role confusion

(12-18)

--the child needs to learn the rules he'll occupy as an adult.

--body image plays a huge role, b/c it's constantly changing during this time of age.

--failure to form identity through exploration can lead to role confusion.

positive outcome: one's ability to see oneself as unique and an integrated person as we're trying to identify who we are.

negative outcome: more confusion as to who one is.

--who am I? Conflict leads to lack of personality/identity.

Intimacy vs isolation

(18-40)

--we begin to share ourselves more intimately w/ other people. We're trying to find love so we explore relationships leading to longer term commitments and completion of this stage.

--can lead to comfortable relationships in a sense of commitment, safety, and care.

--Intimacy avoiding - can lead to negative outcomes such as isolation or loneliness or even depression.

--can I love? Conflict leads to isolation and inability to form true relationships.

Generativity vs stagnation

(40-65 or retirement)

--adults have an established career, begin to settle down in their relationship, make families the center of their lives.

stagnation = feeling stuck as if you're not progressing.

--adults develop a sense of care for others. They're looking out for the welfare of others.

--negative outcome: if adults fail to achieve the objectives listed above, they start to feel stagnate or unproductive.

--can I make a difference? Conflict leads to boredom or self-centeredness.

Integrity vs. despair

(65+)

--we tend to slow down our perfect productivity. We're exploring life as a retired person.

--negative outcome: did I accomplish everything I set out to during my life? Regret and dissatisfaction will arise if they feel they didn't.

--success in this stage will lead to wisdom, enabling the person to look back on their life w/ a sense of closure and completeness and to also accept death w/o fear.

--did I live a good life? Conflict leads to bitterness and fear of death.

Lev Vygotsky

Sociocultural Development Theory

--focused on children and their growth development, the interactions they had w/ those around them, in the development of their cognition and their higher order learning.

--believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences.

--an active process through which we develop.

--his theory suggests that parents, caregivers, peers, cultural beliefs, attitudes, and language are all responsible for the development of this higher order function of learning.

--also says that a child internalizes the info they get from the interaction w/ others.

--said that babies have 4 elementary mental functions.

--higher mental functions are characterized more by independent learning and thinking, but can only be cultivated by the elementary mental functions.

1. MKO

2. ZPD

3. Language -- the main means by which adults transmit info to children, also a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

--he thought that language was an accelerator for thinking and understanding. He believed that language develops from social interactions for communication purposes.

--the ability to think for ourselves and develop that independence of executing skills comes from this importance of language.

MKO

More Knowledgable Other.

--someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner.

ZPD

Zone of Proximal Development

--the part where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given.

--the part where you're between the ability of being able to do something and not being able to do something.

Private Speech

--speaking out loud to yourself.

--children engage in this more than adults.

Vygotsky saw this as a way for children to plan activities and strategies, and this aids in their development.

aka internal speech

Vygotsky's 4 Mental Functions

1. Attention

2. Sensation

3. Perception

4. Memory

--a tutor, parent, teacher, or someone older acts as a model for the child in which they model their behaviors.

--the child often tries to understand the actions or instructions provided by the older person, and internalize it. They use these to guide and regulate their own performance.

Social Influence

--how individual thoughts, actions, and feelings are influenced by social groups.

Influence of social factors on identity formation

--you are influence by those around you.

Influence of individuals on identity formation

--Imitation

--Looking-glass self

--Role-taking

Imitation

--a type of individual social influence.

--we imitate role models, peers, especially those similar to us and those we identify with.

--begins w/ understanding that there's a difference b/w others and ourselves.

Meltzoff - believed that this happens right at birth. (sticking tongue out at baby and the baby imitating experiment)

Looking glass-self

Charles Cooley

--our view of ourselves comes not only from our direct contemplation of our personal qualities, but also from our perceptions about how we are being perceived by others.

3 Steps:

1. we imagine how we must appear to others

2. we imagine how they must evaluate us, based on their observations of us.

3. we develop feelings about ourselves based on our impressions of their evaluations and their observations.

Cooley believed that we aren't actually being influence by the opinions of others, but instead we are being influenced by what we imagine the opinions of other people to be.

Role-taking

--pretending to be or experimenting with other identities.

ex. play house, play doctor, etc.

Philip Zimbardo Stanford prison experiment

Social Norms

--the accepted standards of behavior of social groups.

--we use these to guide and direct our behavior as appropriate in social groups.

Influence of groups on identity formation

Reference group = who we compare ourselves to.

--we are constantly looking for these external groups that align w/ our own beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.

--Reference groups are important b/c any person or group that serves as a point of comparison for an individual, and the formation of general or specific values influences our social decisions.

Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation

--looks at the important contributions that society, people around us, make to this individual development.

--emphasizes the interaction b/w developing people and the culture in which we live.

--we observe things around us, imitate it, and identify with it. Thus, culture and socialization shapes who you are.

George Herbert Mead

The I and the Me.

Me = our social self. How we believe the generalized other sees us. What we learn through interactions w/ others. (society's view)

I = our response to the "me". Thinks about what the things in "me" mean. (the individual identity stepping in, or our personal responses to what society thinks.

--believed that who we are = balance of both the "I" and "Me"

--thought that only certain people could influence our perception of self and only during certain periods of life.

--thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan.

--believed that infants and very young children were not influenced by others in any way. They saw themselves as being the focus of their own world, and they don't really care about what other people think of them. Also, they lack the ability to even take the perspective of another person.

--believed that our beliefs about how other people perceive us start to become more important as we grow up.

3 stages:

*Preparatory stage

Play stage

Game stage*

Preparatory Stage

--children interact w/ others through imitation. --> not true interaction according to Mead.

--they start to focus more on communication w/ others as opposed to simple imitation of them.

Play Stage

--children become more aware of the importance of social relationships. They become able to consider the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the individuals who are closest to them.

--Mead believed that this was reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as other people.

--children are capable of creating social interactions in this stage.

Game Stage

--children start to understand the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the "generalized other", or society as a whole.

--children begin to be influenced by the perceptions other people have of them and start to be concerned about the reactions of others to what they do. (only of people close to them)

Which of the following statements accurately describes the terms "sex" and "gender?"

A. Sex and gender are interchangeable terms; both describe biological and psychological or social identity.

B. Sex refers to psychological or social identity, whereas gender refers to biological identity.

C. Sex and gender are interchangeable terms; both describe choices regarding sexuality and romantic partnerships.

D. Sex refers to biological identity, whereas gender refers to psychological or social identity.

D. Sex refers to biological identity, whereas gender refers to psychological or social identity.

The "American Dream" is the idea that if a person believes in their ability to apply themselves and work towards their goals, they can achieve success and happiness. Which of the following qualities does the American Dream describe?

A. Self efficacy

B. Self concept

C. Self esteem

D. Self awareness

A. Self efficacy

Amanda is working on a research project that studies the beliefs, cognitions and knowledge that her friends have about themselves. What is her project focused on?

A. Self concept

B. Self awareness

C. Self efficacy

D. Self esteem

A. Self concept

Deindividuation refers to a psychological state that results in non-normative behavior when a person is in the presence of a group. Which of the following typically decreases during the process of deindividuation?

A. Self esteem

B. Self awareness

C. Superego

D. Self efficacy

B. Self awareness

Andrew is a pre-med student who has an internal locus of control. If he does well on the MCAT, to what is he most likely to attribute his success?

A. His intelligence and hard work

B. An easier version of the test

C. His lucky socks

D. Khan Academy's tutorials

A. His intelligence and hard work

Which of the following parental styles is associated with high self-esteem in children?

A. Uninvolved

B. Authoritative

C. Authoritarian

D. Permissive

B. Authoritative

In which of Erikson's stages of human development does an individual begin to develop a sense of self?

A. Adolescence

B. Latency

C. Adulthood

D. Young adulthood

A. Adolescence

According to Freudian theory, where does self-identity develop?

A. The ego

B. Sexual impulse

C. The superego

D. The id

A. The ego

How is the Freudian theory of psychosexual development similar to the Eriksonian theory of human development?

A. Both theories assert that the majority of human development occurs later on in life, rather than in childhood.

B. Both theories focus on stages of development that are characterized by a central crisis that must be resolved.

C. Both theories emphasize the importance of social influences in each stage of development.

D. Both theories focus on the importance of sexuality and libido in each stage of development.

B. Both theories focus on stages of development that are characterized by a central crisis that must be resolved.

Which of the following is a core principle of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development?

A. Children are able to reach their highest potential when they are in the presence of skilled and knowledgeable instructors.

B. Children are able to reach their highest potential when they have consistent, stable care from their parents.

C. Children are able to reach their highest potential when they are able to overcome their sexual impulses.

D. Children are able to reach their highest potential when they are given the opportunity to learn on their own.

A. Children are able to reach their highest potential when they are in the presence of skilled and knowledgeable instructors.

An individual has obtained a level of moral reasoning wherein she feels as though it is of the utmost importance to uphold the laws and rules of her society, and she would under no circumstances break the law. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, which of the following has this individual achieved?

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Level 2: Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning

Stage 4: Authority and Social-Order-Maintaining Orientation

A. II only

B. I and II only

C. II and III only

D. I, II, and III

C. II and III only

Attribution Theory - Basic covariation

Attribution Theory: how we find explanations for the behaviors of others.

Covariation Model: understanding and explaining the behaviors of others related to their environment and surroundings.

-INTERNAL (dispositional): a behavior related to a person more, as opposed to the world working against them.

-EXTERNAL (situational): an unusual situation/behavior of a person that we know they're usually not like that.

-"Group lateness" - a high level of consensus meaning we're more likely to attribute the behavior to a situational cause, as opposed to an internal factor.

Your Behavior is attributed to / caused by:

attributional processes:

such as persons (yourself, other people) or situations/environment.

Internal (dispositional) attribution = your disposition

External (situational) attribution = your situation

Fundamental Attribution Error

--we tend to attribute someone else's behavior to their personality/disposition rather than their situation.

ex. we tend to jump to the assumption that fat people are lazy and over-eat, rather than more situational attributions such as a health problem.

--we tend to blame our behavior on external factors.

^^ together: *Actor-Observer Bias" = we are victims of circumstance but when others perform a behavior, they are willful actors.

--Fundamental Attribution Error tends to occur more commonly in individualistic societies (N. America and Europe), cultures who place an emphasis on individual achievement and independence.

Role of Culture in Attributions

Western cultures = INDIVIDUALIST = attributes behavior to internal/dispositional factors (personality).

--tend to over-attribute success to internal factors.

--failures are more likely to be attributed to external or situational factors.

Eastern and African cultures = COLLECTIVIST = attributes behavior to external/situational factors (like society, your tribe, your teammates).

--tend to attribute success to external factors and failures are more likely to attributed to internal factors.

Self-Serving Bias

-- tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and failures to others/external environment

--a way of protecting and enhancing our own self-esteem.

--much more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed, it's because of our own internal personal qualities. But if we fail, we don't have a hit on our self-esteem b/c it's more likely to do w/ things outside of our own control.

Actor/observer bias

--we tend to make excuses for ourselves and blame others' actions on their personalities.

ex. if we or our friends make bad grades, we say the material is hard and the professor sucks. If it's someone else making bad grades, we blame it on laziness.

How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others:

--when we put ourselves in other people's shoes and assume they feel the same way we feel.

Ex. Bem's original experiment: test subjects see a video of a man raving about doing a boring task. If Bem told the subjects the man was bribed $20 to do this, the subjects came to the conclusion that the man hated the task in reality. On the other hand, if Bem told them the man was only paid $1, the subjects assumed the man actually enjoyed the task. Note, all these are assumptions based on self-perception, as the subject never met the man in the video.

Primacy bias

--the tendency to base a judgment or evaluation on information that was presented earlier. (ex. first impressions)

Recency bias

--the tendency to base a judgement or evaluation on recently occurred events.

Halo Effect

--a form of cognitive bias in which the brain allows specific positive traits to positively influence the overall evaluation of the person, idea, or object in the halo.

Devil Effect (aka Reverse Halo Effect)

--when we have a very negative overall impression or there's one attribute that's very negative about a person, it can carry over into negatively influencing how we see a lot of other attributes about a person.

How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others:

Ex. body language changes the way you feel about someone. You are also more likely to perceive someone positively if you are in a relaxed, comfortable environment.

Processes that contribute to PREJUDICE

--power, prestige, and class

--emotion (affective component)

--cognition

--discrimination

Power, prestige, and class

--rich vs. poor, have vs have-nots.

--class is relative. In order for people to be of a higher status, there needs to be people of a lower status beneath them.

Just World Phenomenon

--prestige is based on occupation. High prestige jobs often go to dominant group members, and lower prestige jobs go to minority group members.

ex. you come across a poor person, prejudice kicks in, and you classify that person as being a hobo. You come across a rich person, prejudice kicks in, and you classify that person as a snob.

Just World Hypothesis

--the assumption that a person's actions are inherently inclined to bring morally fair and fitting consequences to that person. All good actions are rewarded, and all bad actions are eventually punished.

--helps people explain to themselves why things are happening in the world.

--helps individuals feel that they can influence the world in a very predictable manner.

When threatened: we can use rational techniques to accept reality, or we can try and prevent or correct injustice (charities, petition, legal system).

Also, we can use irrational techniques to go into denial, refuse to accept the situation.

--over-attributes peoples' actions to personal or dispositional factors, and under-recognizes the complex situation factors that may be at play.

Just World Phenomenon

--an assumption that people make that the world is just, and therefore, people often get what they deserve, which means that good things happen to good people, and bad thing happen to bad people.

--can result in prejudice and discrimination.

Role of Emotion in Prejudice

EMOTIONAL LEVEL PREJUDICE = prejudice that leads to arousal of emotions.

--frustration can lead to a prejudice. When someone is frustrated, it often turns into these aggressive impulses.

^ Can lead to scapegoating: they're taking this frustration that's turning into aggression, and re-channeling it towards a diff. group of individuals.

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

ex. if you were robbed by someone of a certain race, you'll learn to associate those negative emotions with that race even if the next guy you meet didn't do anything.

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

--frustration often leads to aggressive behavior, usually re-channeled to towards other people (minorities).

linked w/ Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

--suggests that people become very frustrated and you get upsurge in prejudice and discrimination when people feel deprived of something they feel entitled to.

--there's a discrepancy b/w what their expectations are, and what they actually get.

linked w/ Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

Role of Cognition in Prejudice

COGNITIVE LEVEL PREJUDICE = prejudice based on rational thinking.

ex. racial profiling - if you observe that a certain race commits crimes more often, you will treat everyone of that race with prejudice.

Discrimination

--prejudice that leads to action, or a behavioral change.

Authoritarian Personality

--obedient to superiors.

--no sympathy or caring for people they deem to be inferior to themselves. Can be pretty oppressive to people under them.

--rigid thinkers, pretty inflexible w/ their viewpoints.

--use prejudice to help them cope w/ their world view, protective of their ego.

--always focusing on other people, how they behave and act, and how much they hate or don't like other people.

Stereotypes

--attributing a certain thought, a certain cognition to a group of individuals.

--putting things/people into categories.

--makes things simpler, but can lead to prejudice and discrimination.

--negative characteristic: stereotype threat

Stigma

--extreme dislike of a person or group based on a difference such as belief, HIV, etc.

comes in 2 forms:

Social Stigma = stigma that is directed from society and other groups towards an individual.

-fueled or associated w/ others key concepts like stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination.

-common when looking at conditions such as medical or mental health conditions, or issues like sexual orientation, or criminality.

Self Stigma = internalizing all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences that people have.

= stigma that's directed by the individual towards him or herself.

-as they internalize these negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory behaviors, they may feel rejected by society, may feel the need to avoid interacting w/ society.

Ethnocentrism

--judging others based on our own culture and perspective.

--judging our own culture to be superior to that of others.

ex. you may look at face paintings of tribes and find them weird, but if you step outside your ethnocentrism, you realize that the tribes probably look at you and think your lack of face painting is weird.