US Cold War Foreign Policy

Robert S. McNamara

US Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson who helped develop the flexible response strategy and published Systems Analysis, which sought to produce defense more economically amidst the massive spending needed to accomplish Kennedy’s flexible response strategy

Dean Acheson

Former Secretary of State under Harry Truman who had been a key architect of NSC-68. Later advised Kennedy in his flexible response plan to bolster the US conventional and unconventional response

Paul Nitze

Key architect of NSC-68 who advised Kennedy in his flexible response strategy to bolster conventional and unconventional response through increased expenditures

Alliance for Progress

A non-military form of containment introduced by Kennedy that sought to establish US-Latin American economic ties and promote development. Partly done as a means to increase US influence and reduce Soviet influence.

Test Ban Treaty

Treaty initiated after the Cuban Missile Crisis aimed at reducing the threat of tensions. Banned nuclear missile tests in outer space, under water, or in the atmosphere. Contributed to mutual trust between Kennedy and Khrushchev

Bay of Pigs

Failed attempted invasion to overthrow the Castro regime that ultimately strengthened ties between Cuba and the USSR

Roswell Gilpatric

Geneva Accords

1954 treaty where France agreed to grant independence to Vietnam following the First Indochina War. Divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, intended to be temporary until 1956, and set the stage for the Vietnam War

Le Duan

“Real” communist who accused Ho Chi Minh of being a “rightist” and ultimately sidelined Ho Chi Minh in 1963 unbeknownst to the United States. Sought a more forceful and violent approach to dealing with the South

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

Two reports in 1964 of North Vietnamese firing on US ships in international waters that contributed to Johnson’s decision for war

Richard Russell

Senator on the Armed Services Committee who opposed war plans for Vietnam

Humphrey Memorandum

Document warning Johnson not to go to war by Democrat Hubert Humphrey

William Westmoreland

Commander of the war effort in Vietnam from 1964 onwards. Decided on a war of attrition (requiring enemy casualties to be high). Faced criticism after the Tet Offensive where North Vietnamese forces utilized surprise attacks that led to domestic criticism of his abilities

Nixon Doctrine

A shift in foreign policy that sought to implement a nuclear umbrella over any nation vital to US interests even if not a formal ally. However, local actors were required to provide for their own security in pursuit of a US vision of “peace through partnership” that avoided direct US troop support for all allies

Yom Kippur War

Invasion of Israel by an Arab-led coalition of states in October 1973 that was ultimately defeated by Israel:

-Israel refusing to implement UN ceasefire.

-Caused a crisis in the Middle East as the Soviet Union suggests intervening along with the US to avoid conflict. Nixon must either risk fighting its own ally (Israel) if he supports the USSR suggestion or risk fighting the Soviets if he doesn’t. As a result, Nixon sends a worldwide alert of all military forces (including nuclear ones)

Suggests a shortcoming of Detente in preventing conflict with Nixon’s dilemma being a prime example of where it can fall short

ABM Treaty

1972 treaty between the United States and Soviet Union that restricted the ability of either nation to develop anti-ballistic missile defense systems, thereby reducing the pressure to build up nuclear arsenal.

Considered an accomplishment of Detente under Nixon

Helsinki Accords

Diplomatic agreement signed in 1975 at European initiative that grew out of a Conference on Security and Cooperation, including all European nations except Albania. Four baskets were a part of the Accords:

-Security issues (inviolable borders and mutual recognition)

-Economic issues

-Human rights issues (which later embarrassed the Soviets)

-Follow up procedures

Considered an achievement of Detente during the Ford administration

Angola

Country where Cuban/Soviet-aligned communists (MPLA) sought to take power in a civil war, leading to US intervention through aid to opponent groups from 1975 onwards. Considered an act of unilateralism by the Soviet Union, which Detente was intended to restrict, therefore hindering US-Soviet relations

“Nixon’s War”

Perceived expansion of the Vietnam War to Cambodia in 1970 that led to criticism of the President, despite the communists having been using Cambodia as a base throughout the war.

One of the many popular fictions about Nixon in the Vietnam war era

Salvador Allende

Marxist leader elected to lead Chilean presidency in a plurality, leading to a US intervention to undermine his government. His policies cause an economic crisis leading to his eventual overthrow in a coup by right-wing Pinochet in 1973 with US support

An incidence representing a disappointment of detente and perceived by the USSR as an incident of the US seeking unilateralism

Zbinigiew Brzezinski

National Security advisor under Carter administration who helped prepare PD-59. Adopted a liberal idealist view of detente and foreign policy that made human rights concerns a hinderance to diplomacy with other countries

PD-59

Signed July 1980 by the Carter administration that sought to establish a credible deterrent against the Soviet Union. It sought to deter 4 things: Soviet Nukes on US, Nukes on NATO allies, Attacks against abroad US soldiers, and a Conventional Soviet attack. The ultimate goal was to return the US-Soviet relations to a state of MAD.

Document seen as too confrontational and contributed to Carter’s defeat to Reagan in 1980, who repudiated efforts to return to MAD

SDI

New strategy adopted by Reagan that repudiated Mutually Assured Destruction. Sought to create a defense system to defend against nuclear weapons. Received broad public support but was considered a revolutionary challenge to accomplish.

Soviets additionally believed Reagan to be adopting this system to prepare for war, though in reality Reagan intended to share technology with the Soviets

Pershing II’s

US developed missiles that could strike Moscow in less than ten minutes. More powerful and effective than Soviet SS-20’s, leading to a war conundrum in 1983 that gave rise to Soviet fears about the prospects of a US attack to the point of nearly concluding a war countdown (KGB)

Able Archer 83

Practice drills conducted by NATO military forces of what a full-scale allied release of nuclear weapons would look like in November of 1983. Greatly contributed to Soviet fears of a US attack and contributed to the KGB’s claim that the US is mobilizing for war

Maurice Bishop

Marxist leader of Grenada who warned the Soviet Union of impending US invasion. Ultimately overthrown by the United States in 1983

KAL Flight 007

Passenger airliner shot down by the Soviet Union in 1983 after crossing into Soviet airspace. Reagan denounced the attack as a massacre, with his rhetoric sparking fears that the United States was preparing to attack the Soviet Union

OECS

Organization of Eastern Caribbean States: Economic union of eastern carribean countries that participated in the US invasion of communist controlled Grenada in 1983. Founded in 1981

Sandinistas

Nicaraguan revolutionaries who overthrew the Somoza regime and began to align with communist causes, supporting communist guerrillas in El Salvador leading to Reagan to cut aid to Nicaragua and eventually begin funding their opponents, the Contras

Contras

Right-wing counter revolutionary group that opposed the Sandinistas in Nicaragua. Reagan’s support of the Contras garnered controversy in the United States and was a recipient of illegal funds garnered from an illegal arms sale with Iran in 1986. Also closely related to the Reagan doctrine. Boland Amendments restricted aid in 1982-84. Bill to aid contras fails in ‘85 but passes in ‘86

Averell Harriman

Played a signifigant role in crafting the test-ban treaty following the Cuban missile crisis

Dean Rusk

Secretary of State to Kennedy and Johnson who was a strong supporter of the Vietnam War

Walter Heller

Economic advisor to Kennedy who advised his flexible response plan.

-Since Kennedy’s flexible response plan required a significant increase of expenditures to boost conventional and unconventional responses, substantial budgetary considerations were needed.

-This advisor supported a Keynesian economics and believed this strategy would would provide the funding for Kennedy’s flexible response

Peace Corps

Non-military form of containment that involved a program for young individuals to serve abroad in humanitarian situations, promoting education, health, agriculture peace, and friendships among foreign nations. Sought to capture the optimism and idealism of young Americans drawn to the Kennedy movement

Wars of National Liberation

Berlin Wall

Wall built in 1961 to prevent East German citizens from fleeing to West Berlin. Became symbolic of the divide between the East Bloc and NATO. Wall was destroyed in 1989 amidst the liberalization of the Soviet Union by Gorbachev, it’s destruction being one of the evident signs of the fall of the USSR

Viet Cong

North Vietnamese guerrilla group intended to undermine the South Vietnamese government and bring it under communist control. Born following Diem not taking part in the 1956 election, which Hanoi treated as a betrayal. Sought to replace Saigon regime

Ngo Dinh Diem

Catholic nationalist leader who took power in South Vietnam following the ousting of installed Emperor Bao Die:

- He did not take part in 1956 elections (with US approval) leading to Hanoi creating the Viet Gong to undermine his rule.

-Kennedy sponsors a coup against him leading to his assassination and the destabilization of South Vietnam due to his openness to reunification

Ho Chi Minh

Marxist revolutionary and founder of the Viet Minh who fought for independence from France in the First Indochina War. Although ceremonially appeared to be at the head of North Vietnam, he was sidelined by more forceful and extreme communist generals in 1963 (unbeknownst to the US)

J. William Fulbright

US Senator and early pick for Secretary of State by Kennedy who was rejected for being considered too radical. Member of the foreign relations committee and an opponent to Johnson’s war plans

Mike Mansfield

Senate majority leader (Democrat) in 1964 who opposed Johnson’s war plans for Vietnam amidst the Gulf of Tonkin crisis

SEATO

Coalition of southeast Asian states aligned with United States and NATO interests in securing defense against the threat of communism. South Vietnam was not part of SEATO amidst the beginning of the Vietnam War, drawing into question any obligation for the United States to supply South Vietnam with troops

ARVN

Army of South Vietnam which was initially formed primarily of guerilla fighters intended to oppose the Viet Cong (which had been created in response to the Diem regime). US attempted to build up forces to allow them to carry out the war by themselves to allow a US withdraw. Army would be rapidly and fully defeated at the fall of Saigon

Vietnamization

Attempted buildup of South Vietnamese Army forces with the hope of allowing them to carry out the war on their own so that the US could withdraw. Initiated by Nixon in 1969 as an early form of Detente. Plan ultimately failed and the ARVN fell swiftly upon the pullout of the United States

SALT

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty:

-Placed caps on the construction of new nuclear bombs, but accommodated existing plans for new weapons

-Very slow and prodding process; repudiated by Reagan with the introduction of START for this reason

-SALT I from 1969-72, SALT II 1972-79

-Associated with Detente

Basic Principles (of Detente)

1972 document detailing the basic principles of Detente: which posited that neither side should seek a unilateral advantage in order to prevent either side from having an incentive to attack. Unenforced in practice:

-US excludes USSR from Middle East peace process, US actions in Angola go against basic principles

-Soviet actions post Vietnam also go against basic principles

Cyrus Vance

Secretary of State under Jimmy Carter who played a role in drafting of PD-59 and took a special interest in seeking arms reduction

Silent Majority

Term popularized by President Nixon to describe a large group of Americans who he believed broadly supported his initial policies regarding the Vietnam War as opposed to the vocal minority who loudly protested the war effort

CSCE

Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe created by the United States in 1975 seeking to promote economic cooperation, military security, and human rights. Eventually led to the Helsinki Accords

ERW

Also known as a neutron bomb. Was a weapon in development by the United States intended to maximize radiation fallout but was scraped in the name of restraint under Detente. Soviet actions continued to develop ICBM’s and other weapons of mass destruction, leading to a criticism of detente’s restraint

Deep Cuts

START

Strategic Arms Reduction introduced by Reagan:

-Replaced SALT which merely limited production

-Sought to cut into existing arsenals with quicker, more dramatic effort

-Repudiation of MAD and SALT program as too slow and prodding to prevent nuclear war

-Critics charged as being idealistic but unrealistic

SS-20’s

Soviet missiles that were far less effective than the US Pershing II’s. US offered to stop producing Pershing II in exchange for Soviets to stop producing SS-20’s, but Soviets refused

(v)RYAN

Soviet program aimed at collecting information about a potential US attack. Warned of a “special degree of urgency” in 1983

Boland Amendments

Legislation aimed at banning aid from the United States intended to overthrow the Sandinistas. Came in two iterations:

-First in 1982; seeks to ban aid to overthrow Sandinistas but does not ban aid to Contras outright

-Second in 1984; seeks to tighten ban on aid but reserves a mere $14 million for Contras if both houses approve. Also publishes information about mining in Managua and publication of assassination manuel

Emphasizes the controversy surrounding Reagan’s support for the Contras in Nicaragua

Granada

Island nation in Carribean that was invaded by the United States in 1983 amidst the rise of a Communist leader in the country. Invasion occurred amidst heightened tensions between US and USSR with the Soviets believing the US is preparing for war. Granada warned the Soviets of the impending invasion

Stanislav Petrov

Soviet Lieutenant Colonel credited with saving the world in 1983 after refusing to launch missiles against the United States due to a Soviet malfunction. Incident was after recent tensions following

-the shooting down of KAF 007

-high alert status from RYAN, Reagan’s Evil Empire Speech, SDI proposal

-US exercises near USSR.

These high tensions made risk of nuclear war significant in 1983

Reagan Doctrine

An aid program to Nicaragua and Afghanistan based on Reagan’s statements in a 1985 SOTU address. Aid to the contras was controversial and the bill failed in April of the same year. Another bill passed in June and further aid the following year. Reagan doctrine perceived as being offensive in nature and stoked concerns that Central America would be “another Vietnam”

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