MINI-PARAGRAPH SHORT-ANSWER FLASHCARDS for PHILOSPHY

Metaethical Moral Relativism (Paragraph)

Metaethical Moral Relativism is the view that there are no universal moral truths, and that morality depends entirely on cultural or individual beliefs. Supporters argue that because cultures disagree so deeply about right and wrong, morality is likely relative rather than objective.

Moral Isolationism (Paragraph)

Moral Isolationism is Mary Midgley’s claim that we cannot judge other cultures because we lack the understanding needed to evaluate them. It is similar to relativism in discouraging cross-cultural judgment, but differs because isolationism says judgment is impossible rather than relative.

Aristotle’s Definition of Virtue (Paragraph)

Aristotle defines virtue as a stable character trait that lies between excess and deficiency—the “golden mean.” A virtue develops through practice and rational choice. For example, courage lies between rashness and cowardice.

Habituation (Paragraph)

In Aristotle’s ethics, habituation is the process of developing virtues through repeated action. By consistently practicing good behavior, we shape our character until virtuous actions become natural and automatic.

Categorical Imperative (Paragraph)

The Categorical Imperative is Kant’s moral rule that we should act only on principles we could rationally will everyone else to follow. Under the universalizability test, an action is wrong if its maxim cannot function as a universal law—such as lying, which would destroy trust.

Hedonism (Paragraph)

Hedonism is the view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. One challenge to this view is the Experience Machine argument: because many people would refuse to plug into a machine that produces constant pleasure, it suggests that we value more than pleasure alone.

Principle of Fairness (Paragraph)

The Principle of Fairness states that if someone benefits from a cooperative system, they are obligated to follow its rules. This supports social contract theory by explaining why citizens must obey laws. However, free riders challenge the principle by taking benefits without contributing.

Rousseau’s Sovereign (Paragraph)

Rousseau’s Sovereign is the collective group of citizens expressing the “general will.” It creates laws aimed at the common good, ensuring that individuals obey laws they have, in a sense, given themselves.

Justice vs Care (Paragraph)

The justice perspective emphasizes rules, rights, and impartiality, while the care perspective focuses on relationships, empathy, and responsibilities. Baier argues that traditional ethics overlooks care, which is essential to understanding moral life.

Backward vs Forward Responsibility (Paragraph)

Backward-looking responsibility deals with blame for past actions, while forward-looking responsibility concerns future duties such as preventing harm or providing care. Card argues that both are crucial for understanding moral responsibility in society.