Heimler Unit 3 Review

What is the significance of the date range for Period 3 (1754–1800)?

1754 marks the start of the French and Indian War, which ended Britain’s policy of salutary neglect and began direct imperial control, leading to colonial resistance and revolution. 1800 marks the Revolution of 1800, when Jefferson’s election resulted in the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties, showing the durability of the new constitutional system. Overall, the period traces America’s transformation from colonies under British rule to an independent republic, highlighting debates over liberty vs. order and federal vs. state power.

TRANSITION: FROM REVOLUTION TO ARTICLES (1776–1781)

What challenge did Americans face after winning independence from Britain?

They needed to build a new government that avoided tyranny while ensuring stability and unity among the states.

What political idea most influenced post-Revolution government formation?

Republicanism — the belief that power derives from the people and should be exercised through elected representatives.

Why did states want most of the power after independence?

They had just fought against centralized tyranny under Britain and feared replacing it with another strong central authority.

How did state constitutions reflect fear of centralized power?

They limited executive authority, strengthened legislatures, and included bills of rights to protect individual liberty.

Who was typically granted suffrage under early state constitutions?

Mostly white male property owners — reflecting limits on political participation despite revolutionary ideals.

What tension defined early postwar American politics?

Balancing liberty (weak central power) with order (effective national governance).

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION (1777–1787)

What was the first constitution of the United States?

The Articles of Confederation, drafted in 1777 and ratified in 1781.

Why did the Articles create a weak central government?

Americans feared centralized tyranny and prioritized state sovereignty.

What was the main structural feature of government under the Articles?

A unicameral Congress with no executive or judicial branch.

How did voting work under the Articles?

Each state had one vote, regardless of population size.

What powers did Congress lack under the Articles?

It couldn’t tax, regulate interstate commerce, or enforce laws directly.

Why was the federal government’s inability to tax a major weakness?

It left the government unable to pay war debts or fund national defense.

How did foreign nations expose the weakness of the Articles?

Britain and Spain restricted U.S. trade and occupied western forts, and the U.S. lacked the power to respond.

What was the problem with interstate commerce under the Articles?

States imposed tariffs on each other, harming national trade and unity.

How did Shays’ Rebellion reveal the Articles’ weakness?

It showed that the federal government couldn’t maintain order or pay soldiers, highlighting the need for a stronger system.

What was the significance of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787?

It established rules for admitting new states, banned slavery in the Northwest Territory, and promoted education — one lasting success of the Articles.

How did Shays’ Rebellion lead to calls for reform?

It alarmed elites and convinced many that a stronger central government was necessary to prevent anarchy.

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION (1787)

What was the original purpose of the Constitutional Convention?

To revise the Articles of Confederation — though delegates soon decided to draft a new constitution.

What key question guided the Convention’s debates?

How to strengthen the federal government without creating tyranny.

How did the Constitution solve the Articles’ problems?

By creating a stronger federal system with separated powers and shared authority between state and national governments.

What is the principle of separation of powers?

Dividing government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent abuse of authority.

What is the purpose of checks and balances?

To ensure that each branch can limit the powers of the others, preventing tyranny.

What is federalism?

A system in which power is divided and shared between national and state governments.

What are examples of shared, federal, and state powers under federalism?

Federal: declare war; State: run elections; Shared: taxation.

How did the Virginia Plan propose representation?

By population, favoring large states.

How did the New Jersey Plan propose representation?

Equal representation for each state, favoring small states.

What compromise resolved the dispute over representation?

The Great Compromise — created a bicameral legislature with population-based House and equal-representation Senate.

How did delegates address the issue of slavery and representation?

Through the Three-Fifths Compromise, counting enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation.

What was the compromise on the slave trade?

Congress could not ban the importation of enslaved people until 1808.

Why was the Constitution considered a “bundle of compromises”?

Because it balanced conflicting regional and political interests to create a workable government structure.

What underlying fear united all delegates despite disagreements?

The fear of repeating Britain’s tyranny through concentrated power.

RATIFICATION DEBATE (1787–1788)

What process was required for the Constitution to take effect?

Ratification by 9 of 13 states.

Who supported ratification of the Constitution?

Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.

What arguments did the Federalists make?

That a stronger federal government was needed for national stability, unity, and defense, with checks and balances to prevent tyranny.

What were the Federalist Papers?

A series of essays explaining and defending the Constitution to persuade ratification.

Who opposed ratification and why?

Anti-Federalists — they feared a strong central government would threaten liberty and state sovereignty.

Why did Anti-Federalists want a Bill of Rights?

To protect individual liberties from potential federal abuse, as in many state constitutions.

How did Federalists ultimately win ratification?

By promising to add a Bill of Rights after ratification to protect citizens’ freedoms.

What was the broader significance of the ratification debate?

It defined two enduring visions of American government — strong centralized authority vs. local/state control — laying the groundwork for political parties.

WASHINGTON’S PRESIDENCY & EARLY PRECEDENTS (1789–1797)

Who was the first President of the United States?

George Washington, unanimously elected by the Electoral College in 1789.

What precedent did Washington set regarding executive departments?

He created a Cabinet (State, War, Treasury, and Justice) to advise the president — establishing the executive branch’s structure.

Who led Washington’s original Cabinet departments?

Thomas Jefferson (State), Alexander Hamilton (Treasury), Henry Knox (War), and Edmund Randolph (Justice).

Why was Washington’s Cabinet significant?

It institutionalized executive departments and collective decision-making in the presidency.

What precedent did Washington set regarding term limits?

He voluntarily stepped down after two terms, establishing the norm of peaceful transfer of power.

What later codified Washington’s two-term precedent?

The 22nd Amendment (ratified 1951) limited presidents to two terms.

What did Washington warn against in his Farewell Address?

He warned against the divisive effects of political parties and entangling foreign alliances.

What message did Washington’s warning convey about early national priorities?

That unity, neutrality, and independence in domestic and foreign policy were vital to national survival.

ESTABLISHING THE LEGISLATIVE & JUDICIAL BRANCHES

What law created the early federal court system?

The Judiciary Act of 1789.

What did the Judiciary Act establish?

A three-tiered federal court system — district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court with six justices.

Why was the Judiciary Act important?

It gave practical structure to Article III of the Constitution, defining the role of the judicial branch.

How did early Congress define its own power?

By creating lasting institutions (courts, departments, revenue systems) that expanded federal authority.

FORMATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES (1790s)

Why did political parties form despite Washington’s warnings?

Differing views on federal power, economics, foreign policy, and individual liberty.

What were the first two political parties?

The Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

Who led the Federalists and what did they believe?

Alexander Hamilton — favored a strong central government, manufacturing economy, and ties with Britain.

Who led the Democratic-Republicans and what did they believe?

Thomas Jefferson — favored states’ rights, an agrarian economy, and support for France.

What major economic issue divided the parties?

Hamilton’s plan to create a national bank and assume state debts.

Why did Hamilton want a national bank?

To stabilize currency, build national credit, and strengthen federal financial control.

Why did Jefferson oppose the national bank?

He argued it was unconstitutional and favored the wealthy over common farmers.

How did the conflict over the bank reflect constitutional interpretation?

Hamilton used a loose (implied powers) interpretation; Jefferson used a strict one.

What was the result of the bank debate?

The First Bank of the United States was established in 1791, expanding federal authority.

How did Hamilton’s economic plan influence the U.S.?

It laid the foundation for a modern financial system and deepened political divisions.

LIBERTY VS. ORDER: THE WHISKEY REBELLION (1791–1794)

What triggered the Whiskey Rebellion?

A federal excise tax on whiskey that hurt small western farmers.

How did farmers respond?

They rebelled, seeing the tax as favoring eastern elites and federal overreach.

How did Washington respond to the rebellion?

He mobilized state militias and personally led troops to suppress it.

What was the significance of the Whiskey Rebellion’s suppression?

It demonstrated the federal government’s ability to maintain order — a key contrast to Shays’ Rebellion under the Articles.

How did Jefferson view Washington’s response?

As an overreach of federal power that betrayed revolutionary principles.

What did the Whiskey Rebellion reveal about early American politics?

It showed the enduring tension between liberty and authority in the new republic.

FOREIGN POLICY CHALLENGES (1790s)

How did the French Revolution divide Americans?

Federalists opposed involvement (to protect trade with Britain), while Democratic-Republicans supported the French cause as an extension of liberty.

What was Washington’s stance on the French Revolution?

He issued the Proclamation of Neutrality (1793), keeping the U.S. out of European wars.

Why was neutrality important for the U.S.?

It preserved economic stability and avoided entangling alliances with major powers.

What did Jefferson do in protest of neutrality?

He resigned as Secretary of State, opposing Washington’s Federalist-leaning foreign policy.

What foreign conflicts affected U.S. trade and territory?

British occupation of western forts and Spanish control of the Mississippi River.

What was Jay’s Treaty (1794)?

An agreement where Britain withdrew from western forts and improved trade relations but didn’t address impressment.

Why was Jay’s Treaty controversial?

Democratic-Republicans saw it as pro-British and a betrayal of revolutionary ideals.

What was Pinckney’s Treaty (1795)?

A treaty with Spain granting the U.S. access to the Mississippi River and New Orleans for trade.

How did Pinckney’s Treaty benefit the U.S.?

It boosted western trade and helped secure the southern border.

THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS (1798)

What were the Alien and Sedition Acts?

Federalist laws that restricted criticism of the government and increased requirements for citizenship.

Why did Federalists pass these acts?

They feared foreign influence and dissent amid conflict with France.

How did the acts violate republican principles?

They limited free speech and expanded federal power over individuals.

How did Democratic-Republicans respond to the Alien and Sedition Acts?

They wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, arguing states could nullify unconstitutional laws.

What did the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions assert?

That states had the right to declare federal laws void if they exceeded constitutional authority.

What was the long-term significance of these resolutions?

They established the principle of state resistance to federal overreach — a theme in future U.S. history.

NATIONAL & REGIONAL IDENTITIES

How did Americans define national identity after the Revolution?

Through ideals of liberty, republican virtue, and independence from aristocratic systems.

What role did art and literature play in shaping national identity?

Artists like Charles Willson Peale glorified Revolutionary heroes, and writers like Hector St. John de Crèvecœur defined Americans as a “new man.”

How did architecture reflect national identity?

Federal-style architecture rejected British Georgian influence, symbolizing republican ideals.

What was a key regional difference in defining liberty?

Northern states moved toward emancipation, while southern states entrenched slavery as part of their economy and culture.

Who was Gowan Pamphlet and why was he significant?

A formerly enslaved man who became one of America’s first Black Baptist ministers — showing how marginalized voices helped shape American identity.

MIGRATION, WESTWARD EXPANSION & SLAVERY (1790s)