Research Methods Final

Applied Research

Seeks to solve practical problems

Basic Research

Knowledge for the sake of Knowledge

What does converging operations mean?

Uses multiple independent methods to investigate the same phenomenon or construct.

Converging operations, in the context of measuring variables, refers to using multiple, independent methods to assess the same construct or variable. This approach provides a more robust and reliable measure compared to relying on a single method, as different methods may have their own strengths and weaknesses.

Advantage of Converging Operations over single measures for each variable

Increasing validity and reduces bias

What does Correlation tell us

strength and direction between two variables

What are the limitations of correlation

Directionality: correlation does not say which variable causes the change. only that they are related

causation: a strong correlation does not proved that one variable causes the other

third variable problem: confounding, a third variable may be influencing the variables under investigation

Sampling procedure

Simple random sampling

stratified samling

cluster sampling

snowball sampling

convenience sampling

Simple random sampling

randomly selected subset of a group in which each member has an equal chance of being chosen

stratified samling

Population is divided into separate groups/strata based on specific characteristic before being randomly selected from each group.

Proportionate and disproportionate

cluster sampling

population is placed into smaller clusters and then randomly select from these clusters.

no sampling frame available. divide population into clusters to obtain sampling frames.

snowball sampling

members of a population are small and hard to reach

participants lead researcher to other participants

convenience sampling

researchers sample whoever is readily available

often the case with research don eon university students

Proportionate stratified sampling

Researches randomly select a number of number of participants from each stratum that is proportional to their relative size of the population

Disproportionate stratified sampling

each stratum is proportionate to the standard deviation of the distribution of the variable. Larger samples are taken in the strata with the greatest variability to generate the least possible sampling varience.

Face validity

the most basic type of validity. It refers to whether the measurement told appears to be measuring what it is supposed to measure.

content validity

this type assess whether the measurement told adequately covers all relevant aspects of the construct being measured. For example, a test of math abilities should include questions that cover all areas of math, not just one specific topic.

convergent validity

this type examines whther the measurement tool correlates well with other measures that are theoretically related to the same construct.

Discriminent validity

This type assesses whther the measurement tool is not highly correlated with measures of different, unrelated constructs.

math and artistic talent should not be correlated

Criterion Validity

assesses whether the measurement tool accurately predicts or corresponds with an external criterion.

Concurrent

predictive

Predictive validity

whether the measurement tool can predict future outcome.

can college entrance exams predict students success in college

Concurrent validity

does it correlate with a behavior that occured at a time?

What does it mean for research to be empirical?

Empirical research is a type of study that relies on observation, experimentation, or experience to gather data and reach conclusions. It involves collecting evidence through real-world observations and analyzing that data, often using scientific methods like experiments or surveys.

What is the defining character of experimental research?

The defining characteristic of experimental research is its ability to manipulate one or more independent variables and observe their effects on a dependent variable, while controlling for extraneous variables that could confound the results.

We gain knowledge through observation. The scientific method relies on observation, but it is more systematic than everyday sensing and often involves means to make things discernable.

What is inductive reasoning?

a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general.

What is deductive reasoning?

proceed from general information to specific conclusions.

principle of falsifiability

a hypothesis must be able to be proven false

Ethical considerations concerning research with children

consent of adult and assent of child

ethical consideration with deception

debriefing

Indepenent variable

dependent variables

expirament-wise alpha

experiment-wise error rate, total probability of making at least one type 1 error (false positive) accrose all hypothesis test conducted within a single experiment

it matters because multiple hypthesis test increase the overal risk oftype 1 error and adjusting for this risk is crucial for accurate statistical conclusions

Repeated-measures

testing the same participants under different conditions

benefits: increased control because individual differences will not be an issue, fewer participants needed, more sensitive to small effects that might have been masked by independent measures, efficiency data from the same participants.

drawbacks: order effects the order in which conditions are presented can affect participant performance. Participant fatigue , carryover effect and some conditions have lingering results.

Latin square

method of counterbalancing when you have several conditions

it helps control for order effects and ensures that each condition appears in every position within the experimental sequence.

validity

the degree to which a study measures with it is intended to measure

Internal validity

whether the study design is sound enough to establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables

external validity

how generalizable the study and finding are to other populations , setting and conditions

meta-analysis

A meta-analysis is a statistical technique used to combine the results of multiple independent studies on a specific topic. It aims to identify patterns, reveal hidden information, and draw broader conclusions about a research question by pooling data from different studies. Meta-analyses often use rigorous statistical methods to analyze the combined data, potentially offering more reliable and precise conclusions than individual studies alone

quasi-experiemntal designs

used when true random assignment is not possible or ethical

participent variables

individual characteristics that might influence the study results

regression to the mean

tendency of results that are extreme by chance in the first measurement to move closer to the average with measured a second time

phenomenological psychological analysis utilizes something called free imaginitive variation

imagninative variation is used to identify essential elements that remain constant across all variations, revealing the core meaning of the experience.

grounded theory

theories emerge from data

hypothesis is made after data is gathered

know what a null hypothesis is

No effect

If the null hypothesis is true, it suggests that any changes witnessed in an experiment are because of random chance and not because of changes made to variables in the experiment.

Independent T-test

collecting from two different groups

Dependent T-test

collecting from the same people more than once

Chi-square test of independence

categorical and nominal

pearsons R correlation

comparing means

Regression

gives formula for the line

Anova

numerical

comparing means

t and f

t=fsquared

extraneous variable

any factor, other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the results of a study. is a variable that is not being directly investigated but can still affect the dependent variable

quasi-experimentak designs

used when ture experiments are unethical such as the effect of smoking or corporal punishment

threats to validity when studying college students

convenience sampling

university not like the general population

phenomenological stance

involves approaching events and activities with an open, investigative mind, consciously trying to "bracket out" assumptions and remaining attentive to what is present. It's a research approach that prioritizes understanding the essence of human experience, focusing on how individuals perceive and make sense of their world.

Two fundamental procedures

epoche (bracketing) of the natural sciences

put aside theories of the objective nature of the events

epoche of the natural attitude

put aside questions of the objective nature of the events

the objective of the study is not factos but phenomena, which are abstracted by the perceiver according to their projects

in line with the epoche of the natural attitude, wertz does not call into question the objectivity of teresa’s statement

what is the basic premise of narrative inquiry

narrative inquiry is the study of human experience through the interpretation of stories. It invovles making sense of accumulated kowledge ad gained expereince by telling and analyzing stories.

narrative research takes as a premise that people live and/or under or under their lives in storied forms, connecting events in the manner of a plot that has a beggining, middle and end points.

Mediation model

if m is a full mediator then c’ is zero

Scales of measurement

nominal: name

ordinal: order

interval: no true zero

ratio: true zero

nominal

categories of observations (1=male, 2=female)

ordinal

order of observations (more, less, equal) (1st, 2nd, 3rd)

interval

represents number of amount variables belonging to observation

1 person, 2 people, 3 people, 4people (discrete)

temperature in degrees (continuous)

ratio

represent magnitudes/quantities with a true zero

height, weight, mass. length, temperature in kalvin

Likert-type

do you agree or disagree with this statement on a sale of 1-10

guttman

can you run 15 miles?

can you run three

if you can run three yu can run 15

Semantic differential

Ratin scale. On a scale of 1-5 rate this from good to bad