Observational Methods

What is an observation?

A non-experimental method which involves observing and recording behaviours.

Why are observations a good non-experimental method?

• They provide psychologists with a way of studying behaviour directly, meaning they can see what people actually do rather than relying on potentially biased or inaccurate self-reports

• Allows a researcher the flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables in a more natural way

How are observations used in experiments?

To measure behaviour, for example by assessing the dependent variable.

What are the main types of observation by setting?

• Naturalistic observation

• Controlled observation

What are the main types of observation by observer role?

• Participant observation

• Non-participant observation

What are the main types of observation by participant awareness?

• Overt observation

• Covert observation

What are the main types of observation by structure?

• Structured observation

• Unstructured observation

What is naturalistic observation?

When everything has been left as it normally is. They take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur. The environment is unstructured.

• For example: Listening to children talking in their classroom

What is controlled observation?

When some variables are controlled by the researcher. The environment or behaviour is controlled (i.e. structured) to some extent. Participants might know they are being studied and/or the study might be conducted in a laboratory in order to control variables in the environment.

• For example: Listening to children who have been asked (by the researcher) to talk about their families

What is participant observation?

When the researcher (and possibly confederates (someone working with the researcher) of the researcher) becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they’re watching and recording.

• E.g. Rosenhan and confederates had themselves falsely admitted to mental hospitals and kept a record of what they observed during their time there

What is non-participant observation?

When the researcher remains outside the group whose behaviour they’re watching and recording. The participants may or may not be aware they’re being observed (can be overt or covert).

• E.g. Bandura's study involved the researcher observing the children’s behaviour from another room via a one-way mirror

What is overt observation?

When participants are made aware they’re being observed and have given their informed consent to be observed beforehand.

• More likely to occur in controlled lab conditions as the researcher is keen to test the effects of the IV on the DV

• E.g. Ainsworth tested the effect of separation anxiety and stranger anxiety on young babies

What is covert observation?

Where participant’s behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent beforehand. Participants may not be able to see the researcher observing them.

• The only ethical way to conduct a covert observation is to observe behaviour in a public context that would be happening anyway, regardless of the observation taking place

• E.g. Rosenhan (1973) and confederates covertly observed staff and patients of several mental hospitals in the USA by faking symptoms and being admitted as patients themselves

What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?

• Participants are observed going about their daily activities, unaware of being observed

  • This means that their behaviour is natural and unforced

  • Thus this technique is high in ecological validity (at the expense of some control)

• As participants are unaware that they are being observed they are unlikely to succumb to the 'Hawthorne effect' (when participants change their behaviour at the result of being observed)

What are the limitations of naturalistic observation?

• As participants are unaware that they are being observed this raises ethical concerns

  • Participants cannot give informed consent or the right to withdraw and it may not be possible to debrief them

  • This means that naturalistic observations may lack ethical validity

• Naturalistic observations cannot be replicated due to the nature of the method

  • This makes it difficult to apply scientific rigour to them as no variables are controlled

  • This means that the method may be overly subjective

What are the strengths of controlled observation?

• Replicable procedures can be set up which adhere more to a scientific method

  • The researcher may manipulate an IV

  • Participants are tested using the same standards and materials

  • Thus this method has good reliability, particularly if more than one observer is used throughout (known as inter-observer reliability(the degree of agreement between different people observing or assessing the same behaviour))

What are the limitations of controlled observation?

• The use of controlled conditions and artificial tasks means that controlled observations are low in ecological validity

  • Ainsworth's study placed a mother and baby pair in an unfamiliar environment including a stranger

  • This means that both mother and baby may have been responding in ways which did not truly represent their attachment style

• Demand characteristics may impair a controlled observation

  • The children in Bandura's study may simply have been aggressive because they thought that this was expected of them (as they had seen an adult behaving aggressively)

  • This would lower the validity of the findings as it would not be a true effect of the IV on the DV

What are the strengths of participant observation?

• Participant observations mean that the researcher (and confederates) can get fully involved with the group that they are observing

  • This increases the validity of the study as access to real thoughts, feelings, and conversations is possible (as the participants believe the researcher to be 'one of us')

• As the researcher is so immersed in the situation they may become aware of other topics or theories that could be investigated in the future

  • In Piliavin's New York subway study, the observers noted that many of the female passengers did not help in the emergency which could give rise to further research on gender roles

What are the limitations of participant observation?

• Participant observations could result in the researcher having a restricted view of what they wish to observe and thus missing some important behaviours

  • In Rosenhan's study, the researcher and confederates did not have full access to every part of the hospital and all of the staff

  • This limits the usefulness of participant observations

• As the researcher is so immersed in the situation they could begin to lose objectivity

  • They may begin to identify with those they are observing, particularly with long-term studies

  • This would damage the validity of the findings

What are the strengths of non-participant observation?

• The researcher can keep an objective distance from what is being observed

  • This means that they are unlikely to become biased or subjective in their recording of behaviour

  • Thus the validity of the study stays intact

• The researcher is more likely to have a good vantage (view) point from which to observe behaviour as they can position themselves wherever they have the best view, instead of being restricted by the group

  • This lets them observe a wider range of behaviour and collect more data.

What are the limitations of non-participant observation?

• Being removed and at a distance from the 'action' means that a non-participant observation may lack key detail and insight only made possible through the use of participant observational methods

  • This means that a non-participant observation may lack explanatory power

• As the researcher is apart from what they are observing it is possible that they could misinterpret some behaviours

  • They would not be able to ask the participants for clarification as a researcher in a participant observation could

  • This means that non-participant observations may lack some validity

What are the strengths of overt observation?

• Ethics can be preserved as the researcher makes themselves known to the participants, who are aware that they are being observed

  • Zimbardo's prison experiment was an overt observation

  • Participants knew that they were being observed

  • Knowledge of the overt nature of the observation meant that the participants could more easily exercise their right to withdraw, as there was no pretence (act) that this was 'real life'

What are the limitations of overt observation?

• Participants are aware that they are being observed and that their behaviour is being measured which could give rise to observer effect

  • This is a type of demand characteristic which involves participants responding too actively to the research process i.e. trying too hard/not trying hard enough, acting more politely, behaving less naturally

  • This in turn damages the validity of the findings

• Overt observations may suffer from researcher bias

  • The researcher may set up the observation schedule and tasks to align too closely with their hypothesis

  • If so, the researcher has succumbed to confirmation bias as they are striving to look for behaviours which support their hypothesis rather than keeping an open mind

What are the strengths of covert observation?

• As the researcher is hidden from the participants, this means that the behaviour being observed is more likely to be real and uncontrived (sincere,genuine)

  • This means that this type of observation is high in ecological validity

• As the participants are unaware of the researcher, they may behave in ways which would not necessarily emerge if they knew they were 'on display'

  • Piliavin et al. (1969) staged an emergency on a New York subway train and observed the reactions of passengers

  • The covert nature of the observation meant that passengers were unguarded and open in their responses

  • This increases the validity of the findings

What are the limitations of covert observation?

• There are ethical issues with covert observations

  • In Piliavin's New York subway study, the passengers were deceived into thinking that someone had collapsed in their carriage, which could have caused them great distress

  • Thus, covert observations lack ethical validity

• It is problematic for a researcher if they wish to replicate a covert observational study

  • Rosenhan's covert observation of mental hospital staff could not be replicated due to the intrusive and unethical nature of the study

  • Piliavin's study could not be replicated not only due to ethics but for the very sound reason that anyone acting suspiciously on public transport in the 21st century would attract the attention of the security forces!

What are the strengths of structured observation?

• Using quantitative data is a quick and easy method which can be presented visually in graphical form or converted to percentages and statistics

  • This is a strength as the data can show trends and frequencies of behaviour across a large sample

  • Large samples and quantitative data lead to reliable results

• Using predetermined categories means that the researcher is not likely to become distracted or unfocused

  • They can ignore any behaviours which do not align with the behavioural categories they have decided upon

  • This ensures that what is being observed is relevant to the research aim

What are the limitations of structured observation?

• Quantitative data can shed light on what was observed but not on why that behaviour occurred

  • This means that structured observations lack explanatory power (how well a theory, model or hypothesis can effectively explain, predict and make sense of observed data)

• Using pre-determined categories means that the researcher is unable to include any behaviours which may be interesting and highly relevant to the study if they have not been included in the categories beforehand

  • This limits the usefulness of structured observations

What are the strengths of unstructured observation?

• This type of observation allows a researcher to gain rich, insightful data full of depth and detail

  • The recorded data is likely to be highly subjective and personal to those being observed

  • Thus it is high in ecological validity

• By focusing on the unique experiences, opinions and personal 'journey' of a participant an unstructured observation is a good method to use when conducting a case study

  • The data from the observation session(s) can then be used in conjunction with other methods

  • This would result in the triangulation of data and method which increases the validity of a study

What are the limitations of unstructured observation?

• Due to the highly personal and subjective nature of unstructured observations, the researcher may lose their sense of objectivity

  • They may become too close to the participants

  • They may use confirmation bias when analysing their record of the sessions

  • They may (consciously or unconsciously) overlook or miss some important details from the observation sessions

  • A lack of objectivity means that the findings would be unreliable

• Analysing the data from unstructured observations is time-consuming and depends largely on the researcher's interpretation of the data

  • This means that the published findings may not be a valid account of the observation process

What is observer bias?

When the researcher’s expectations, beliefs, or interpretation influence how they record or judge behaviour. In other words, the observer sees what they expect to see instead of what actually happens.

• Mostly affects unstructured observation, because the researcher freely decides what to record, making their expectations more likely to influence the data

What is inter-observer reliability?

The extent to which two observers agree in their rating of the same behaviour (consistency between them). It’s usually measured by taking both sets of ratings and comparing them using correlational analysis.