Learning and Development

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant Chamber

A chamber also containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

positive reinforcement

any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.

primary reinforcers

stimuli, such as food or warmth, that have reinforcement value without learning

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

partial reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

fixed ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable ration schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

self control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

modeling

learning by imitating others; copying behavior

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. This enables language learning, imitation, and empathy.

prosocial behaviors

actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

zygotes

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome

A group of birth defects caused by the effects of alcohol on an unborn child

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilate

fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas

accommodate

revising existing cognitive schemas to fit new information in.

sensory motor stage

first stage of Piaget's cognitive development; birth to 2 years; main activities involve sucking and grasping; must achieve object permanence and mental representations

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

conversation

the informal exchange of ideas by spoken words

egocentric

someone's inability to understand another's viewpoint.

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Autism Spectrum Disorder

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

insecure attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence

temperament

basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

roles

the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status

gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

gender typing

The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

transgender

Identification with a gender that does not match one's biological gender.

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the bodily changes associated with sexual maturity

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the part of the self-concept including one's view of self as a member of a particular social category

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Testosterone

stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

spermarche

first occurrence of ejaculation

menarche

onset of menstruation

intersex

possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

AIDS

A serious (often fatal) disease of the immune system transmitted through blood products especially by sexual contact or contaminated needles.

sexual orientation

a person's romantic and emotional attraction to another person

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

neurocognitive disorders

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse.

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning