Pragmatics

Anaphoric

Anaphoric

Referring to a word or phrase that refers back to a preceding word or phrase. Example: "John lost his wallet. He searched for it everywhere." Here, “he” is an anaphoric reference to “John” and "it" is an anaphoric reference to "wallet".

Assertive

A speech act that conveys a proposition and asserts its truth. Example: "The Earth revolves around the Sun."

Background knowledge context

The information that is assumed to be known or understood by the participants in a communication.

Commissive

A speech act that commits the speaker to a future action. Example: "I promise to attend the meeting tomorrow."

Co-textual context

The linguistic context provided by the surrounding words or phrases in a text.

Declaration

A speech act that brings about a change in the external world. Example: "I now pronounce you husband and wife."

Definite reference

Referring to a specific and identifiable entity. Example: "Pass me the book on the shelf." Here, "the book" has definite reference.

Deictic centre

The point of reference from which deictic expressions derive their meaning. Example: "Come here." “Here” referst to the speaker's current location.

Deixis/deictic expression

Words or phrases whose interpretation depends on the context, typically involving the speaker, listener, and the surrounding situation. Example: "I like this dress." The meaning of "this" depends on the speaker pointing to a specific dress.

Direct speech act

A speech act where the speaker's intention is explicitly conveyed in the utterance. Example: "Pass the salt," is a direct request.

Directive

A speech act that aims to get the listener to do something. Example: "Please close the door." The speaker is giving a directive to the listener.

Discourse deixis

Referring to elements in a conversation that take on different meanings based on the ongoing discourse. Example: "As mentioned earlier, we need to finalize the budget." The phrase "as mentioned earlier" is discourse deixis.

Entailment

The relationship between two propositions where the truth of one proposition logically necessitates the truth of the other. Example: "If it is raining, then the ground is wet." If the first proposition is true, the second one must also be true.

Expressive

A speech act that conveys the speaker's feelings, emotions, or attitudes. Example: "I'm so happy for your success!" expresses the speaker's joy.

Generic reference

Referring to a whole class or category rather than a specific instance. Example: "Dogs are loyal animals." Here, "dogs" has a generic reference.

Illocution

The intended or implied force of an utterance, such as a command, request, or question. Example: "Can you pass me the salt?" The illocutionary force is a request.

Indefinite reference

Referring to a non-specific or unidentified entity. Example: "I saw a bird in the garden." Here, "a bird" has indefinite reference.

Indirect speech act

A speech act where the intended meaning is conveyed indirectly rather than explicitly. Example: "Could you pass the salt?" The indirect speech act is a polite request.

Interpersonal knowledge

Knowledge about social relationships, roles, and interactions.

Linguistic knowledge

Knowledge about language, including grammar, vocabulary, and syntax.

Locution

The actual words or expressions used in an utterance.

Manner and degree deixis

Describes objects by using gestures, e.g.

• The dog was *this* small.

• Why don't you do it like *this*?

Perlocution

The act, intentional or unintentional, that is performed by producing a spoken or written utterance. The speaker who exclaims The dog has eaten the sausages may cause someone else to shout at the dog, to berate the first person for leaving the sausages in a silly place or to go off to buy more sausages, or all three.

Person deixis

Referring to the grammatical persons involved in a discourse, typically the speaker, listener, and others. Example: "I will meet her at the cafe." Here, "I" and "her" involve person deixis.

Place deixis

Referring to the spatial location of entities in a discourse. Example: "This is my favorite spot." Here, "this" involves place deixis.

Pragmatic inference

Drawing meaning from the context and the speaker's intentions beyond the literal meaning of the words.

Pragmatics

The study of language use in context, including the social and cultural aspects of communication.

Presupposition

A proposition that speakers and writers take for granted when making assertions. In asking Who smashed the window? the speaker presupposes that someone smashed the window.

Reference

The relationship between words or phrases and the entities they signify.

Semantic inference

Deriving meaning based on the logical connections between words or phrases.

Situational context

The immediate circumstances or setting in which communication takes place.

Situational knowledge

Knowledge about the specific situation or context in which communication occurs.

Social deixis

Referring to social relationships or roles in communication. Example: Using "your honor" to refer to a judge.

Speech Act

A term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin, and now used widely in linguistics, to refer to a theory which analyses the role of utterances in relation to the behaviour of speaker and hearer in interpersonal communication.

Time deixis

Referring to the temporal location of events or actions in discourse. Example: "I will meet you tomorrow." Here, "tomorrow" involves time deixis.

World knowledge

General knowledge about the world that is assumed to be shared by speakers and listeners.

Conventional implicature

Inferences attached by convention to particular expressions.

Conversation analysis (CA)

A method of studying the structure and organization of talk in everyday conversation.

Conversational implicature

Implications which can be deduced from the form of an utterance, on the basis of certain co-operative principles which govern the efficiency and normal acceptability of conversations, as when the sentence There’s some chalk on the floor is taken to mean ‘you ought to pick it up’.

Cooperative Principle

The principle of communication that assumes participants will make their contributions relevant, informative, truthful, and clear to facilitate understanding.

Cross-cultural pragmatics

The study of how pragmatic aspects of language use vary across different cultures.

Hedge

A discourse particle, a word, phrase or clause, that speakers and writers use to avoid committing themselves to some proposition: e.g. as far as I can see, this will work; you wouldn’t find any problems, probably.

Interruption

An act of breaking into someone else's speech or conversation before they have finished.

Irony Principle

The intentional flouting of conversational maximes to convey meaning that is opposite to the literal interpretation of the words.

Maxim of manner

One of Grice's conversational maxims, suggesting that speakers should avoid ambiguity and be clear and concise in their expressions.

Maxim of quality

One of Grice's conversational maxims, emphasizing the importance of providing truthful and accurate information in communication.

Maxim of quantity

One of Grice's conversational maxims, stating that speakers should provide as much information as is needed for the conversation but not more.

Maxim of relation

One of Grice's conversational maxims, emphasizing that contributions to a conversation should be relevant to the ongoing topic.

Maxims of politeness

Social rules guiding polite communication, including avoiding impolite language, showing deference, and considering the feelings of others.

Overlap

Simultaneous speech by multiple participants in a conversation, where one person starts speaking before another has finished.

Pause

A temporary cessation or break in speech during a conversation.

Politeness Principle

A principle proposed by Leech to supplement the maxims of conversation. It consists of various maxims whose purpose is to avoid hearers losing face and to make hearers feel good.

Transition Relevance Place (TRP)

Points in a conversation where it is appropriate for a new speaker to take a turn or for a transition in the discourse.

Turn-taking

The organization of conversation where participants take turns speaking to maintain smooth and orderly communication.