AP Psychology Unit 1

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it-

"I knew it all along"

critical thinking

Is rationally deciding what to believe or what to do. When one rationally decides something, he or she evaluates information to see if it makes sense, whether it's coherent, and whether the argument is well founded on evidence.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do

theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables that is specific and allows research to be replicated

replication

replicate the original study

case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

survey

A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act.

population

the whole group that you want to study and describe

random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind study

An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

experimental group

A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

independent variable

(statistics) a variable whose values are independent of changes in the values of other variables

confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

dependent varibale

the outcome factor the cariable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variables --what you are measuring (ex. obesity rates)

mode

Measure of central tendency that uses most frequently occurring score.

mean

Average

median

A measure of center in a set of numerical data. The median of a list of values is the value appearing at the center of a sorted version of the list - or the mean of the two central values if the list contains an even number of values.

range

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

informed consent

A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.

debriefing

A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study

sample

A part of the population you are studying.

wording effect of a survey

the way a question or situation is presented affects how people feel about the matter (ex. better wording = more desired results)

positive correlation

two variable rise and fall together, such as height and weight

negative correlation

variables are related inversely, one goes up and the other goes down, such as inner speech and psychological distress

1 standard deviation

68%

deception

investigators providing false or incomplete information to participants for the purpose of misleading research subjects

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation

example of a positive correlation

+0.98

skewed disribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

positive skew

high outlier

negative skew

low outlier

measures of variability

depict diversity of the distribution (range, standard deviation)

normal curve

statistically significant

how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance (p-value)

p < 0.05

averages are reliable

differences between averages is relatively large

implies importance of results

ethics in research

informed consent

protection from harm/discomfort

maintain confidentiality

debriefing

Introspection

examination of one's own thoughts and feelings

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Wilhelm Wundt

father of psychology, structuralism

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Psychoanalysis

School of thought that stresses early childhood experiences and the unconscious

Sigmund Freud

founder of psychoanalysis

Behaviorism

The theory that psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes.

John B. Watson

founder of behaviorism

biopsychological approach

an approach that views behavior as strongly influenced by physiological functions such as hormones and the activity of the nervous system

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

sociocultural perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior such as race, sex, and culture

Humanistic Perspective

stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the importance of consciousness, self-awareness, and the capacity to make choices

Behavioral/Learning Perspective

Personal experience and reinforcement guide individual development

cognitive perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior

psychiatrist

A medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders that can also prescribe medication

psychologist

a professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology

observer bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and enhance teaching and learning

School Psychologist

identify and help students who have problems that interfere with learning

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population