Chapter 6: Conditioning and Learning

Learning

Any relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that can be attributed to experience.

Associative learning

The formation of simple associations between various stimuli and responses.

classical conditioning

A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Something that elicits a response without any prior experience.

unconditioned response (UR)

Response to a stimulus that requires no previous experience.

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not evoke a response.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a learned response.

conditioned response (CR)

Learned reaction elicited by pairing an originally neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

extinction (in classical conditioning)

Weakening of a learned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.

stimulus generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus discrimination

The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.

conditioned emotional response (CER)

An emotional response that has been linked to a previously nonemotional stimulus by classical conditioning.

operant conditioning

Learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding.

law of effect

Responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are not.

operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box)

An apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals.

reinforcer

Any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows.

positive reinforcement

Occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.

negative reinforcement

Occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event.

punisher

Any event that decreases the probability or frequency of responses that it follows.

positive punishment

Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response.

negative punishment (response cost)

Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.

extinction (in operant conditioning)

The weakening or disappearance of a nonreinforced operant response.

operant stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.

generalization

Blowing a single event out of proportion by extending it to a large number of unrelated situations.

operant stimulus discrimination

The tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response

when stimuli associated with nonreward are present.

shaping

Gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern.

Continuous reinforcement

A pattern in which a reinforcer follows every correct response.

partial reinforcement

A pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced.

partial reinforcement effect

Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

schedule of reinforcement

Rules or plans for determining which responses will be reinforced.

fixed ratio (FR) schedule

An arrangement where a set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given

for every four correct responses.

variable ratio (VR) schedule

An arrangement where a varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given after three to seven correct responses; the actual number changes randomly.

fixed interval (FI) schedule

An arrangement where a reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since

the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

variable interval (VI) schedule

An arrangement where a reinforcer is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

primary reinforcer

Nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs.

secondary reinforcer

A learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer.

token reinforcers

A tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like.

observational learning

Learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions.

model

A person who serves as an example in observational learning.

Disinhibition

The removal of inhibition; results in acting out that normally would be restrained.

desensitization

A reduction in emotional sensitivity to a stimulus.

Cognitive learning

Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation.

school psychologists

Psychologists who work in schools and design interventions for students who are having difficulties.

educational psychologists

Psychologists who carry out research to better understand how people best learn and how teachers can improve instruction.

Bloom’s taxonomy

A system for classifying knowledge and learning.

growth mindset

The belief that intelligence and talents can be developed through hard work and effort.

fixed mindset

The belief that intelligence and talents are inborn and cannot easily be changed.

direct instruction

A method of instruction in which information is presented by lecture or demonstration, and students often learn through rote practice.

discovery learning

Learning based on insight and understanding.

Feedback

Information returned to people about their progress toward a goal.

behavioral contract

A formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply.

Premack principle

Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency response.

self-recording

Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies.