i hate my fucking life

The endocrine system uses _______________ to commincate between cells

chemical messengers

What are the three forms of local communication in the body?

• Gap junctions

• Contact dependent signaling’

• Autocrine/paracrine signals

In terms of the endocrine system, gap junctions________

form direct cytoplasmic connections between adjacent cells.

In terms of the endocrine system, contact dependent signals is when __________

signals require interaction between membrane molecules on the two cells

In terms of the endocrine system, autocrine signals act on __________

the SAME cell( that SECRETED them)

In terms of the endocrine system, paracrine signals are ________________

secreted by one cell and diffuse to adjacent cells

Paracrine cells are secreted by one cell and _________

DIFFUSE to ADJACENT cells.

Neurotransmitters are chemical signaling molecules secreted by neurons that _____

DIFFUSE** across a synapse and BIND** to receptors on a target cell

Neurohormones are __________

hormones released by neurons into the ECF that enter the circulatory system and are carried to distant targets

Unlike neurotransmitters, neurohormones are for ________ communcation

long distance

Neurohormones are released by neurons into the ECF (extracellular fluid)  that enters the ______

circulatory system 

Neurohormones are carried by bulk flow to _____

distant targets

Two examples of neurohormones are ____________ and __________

oxytocin and vasopressin

Though many cells may be exposed to a neurohormone, ONLY ___________ will respond

cells with a RECEPTOR**** will respond

The ______ on a cell determines the response, not the chemical messenger

receptor

Unlike autocrine/paracrine signals, the neurohormone ENTERS*** the ______________

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Both the endocrine and exocrine glands develop the same. They start off as __________ tissue

epithelial (tissue)**

In exocrine glands, a _____ is formed. 

lumen

In exocrine glands, the lumen acts as a __________

duct.

The lumen (duct) of the exocrine system ____________ to the SURFACE****

transports secretory product

An example of an exocrine gland is a ______

salivary gland

The reason why salivary glands are considered exocrine glands is because ____________

the secretory product is on the external surface of the body.

Unlike exocrine glands, the cells in the endocrine glands that formed the duct**** undergo _________

apoptosis

In simpler terms, unlike the exocrine gland, the endocrine gland DOES NOT*** have a _____

duct

Unlike the exocrine gland, the secretory product of the endocrine gland _________

ENTERS*** the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM****

An example of an endocrine gland is the ___________

beta cells of the pancreas

The beta cells of the pancreas produce the hormone _______

insulin

Exocrine glands have DIRECT CONNECTIONS**** to the _______

body’s surface

(for example, sweat glands)

In terms of function/glands, the pancreas has both ___________

endocrine and exocrine

(glands/functions)

The asinar cells, in the exocrine pancreas, are producing _________ and other secretory products like bicarbonate.

zymogens (proenzymes)

The zymogens (proenzymes) move down a duct and join the _______________

(lumen) of the duodenum

Zymogens are toplogically regarded with the ___________ glands/functions of the pancreas

exocrine

The isle of langerhans, in the pancreas, contains ____________ cells that produce hormones

endocrine cells

In the isle of langerhans,, the __________ produce insulin

beta cells

The beta cells of the isle of langerhans (of the pancreas) produces _________

insulin

The insulin of the beta cells within the pancreeas DO NOT ENTER A DUCT. Instead, it is _______________

released and enters the circulatory system.

Insulin is regarded with the ________ glands/functions of the pancreas

endocrine

The alpha cells within the isle of langerhans produces __________

glucagon

The alpha cells of the isle of langerhands produce glucagon when ________________

glucose levels are low in the body

The glucagon of the alpha cells DOES NOT ENTER A DUCT. Instead, it ___________

enters the circulatory system to its main target (the liver)

After glucagon enters the circulatory system, its main target is the _________

liver

Hormones are signaling molecules that are secreted by cells and travel in the _________

circulatory system

Hormones are usually transported to a distant target through ________

bulk flow of the circulatory system

Hormones exert their effects as _______ concentration. Meaning, target cell receptors have to be able to bind with high affinity and specificity in order to respond to them.

low concentration

The target cell receptors of hormones have two qualties: _________ and ____________

very specific and high affinity

Many cells may be exposed to a hormone but only cells that express ____________ can respond

the receptors

Specific responses to hormones are determined by the ___________, NOT THE HORMONE

receptor

Hormone action must be _________

terminated

Hormones, after they have done their action, are usually ___________ by the liver

enzymatically broken down

The circulating half life of insulin is usuallly ___________

5 or 6 minutes

Some hormones, notably steroid hormones have a relatively short circulating half life of _________

30 minutes

A steroid hormone works by ___________

regulating gene expression

In response to a steroid hormone, _______ are synthesized to bring about a physiological response.

proteins

The proteins synthesized to respond to the steroid hormones may hav e a long half life of ______

24 hours

What are the three chemical classes of hormones?

1) peptide/protein hormones

2) steroids

3) amines

What distinguishes a peptide from a protein hormone?

amino acids

Peptides have _____________ or fewer amino acids

50 (or fewer)

_______ have 50 or fewer amino acids

peptides

Protein hormones have ________ amino acids

more than 50

________ have more than 50 amino acids

protein hormones

What are some examples of peptides?

oxytocin and vasopressin

What are some examples of proteins?

insulin and growth hormone

Peptide/protein hormones are both _______________ and _________

made in advance and stored in vesicles

Steroids are derived from __________________

cholesterol

Steroids are ______________. Meaning, there's NO way to

package steroid hormones in a vesicle, they will diffuse out of the vesicle

HYDROPHOBIC

Unlike peptides/protein hormones and amines, steroids are ________

made on demand

Which chemical class of hormones are made on demand?

steroids

What are some examples of steroid hormones?

estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

Amines are derived from ____________ such as tyrosine

amino acids

Amines are hydrophiic molecules that are ______________

made in advance and stores in vesicles

What kind of molecule are amines ?

hydophilic

What are some examples of amines?

catecholamines and thyroid hormones

What are some examples of catecholamines (of the amines)?

norepinephrine and epinephrine

What is the first step of the biosynthesis of peptide/protein hormones?

(use insulin as an example)

1) there's a gene that encodes insulin (precursor) that’s made and then enzymatically cleaved, so it's translated on ribosomes.

What is the second step of the biosynthesis of peptide/protein hormones?

(use insulin as an example)

2) the vesicles (that contain the pre-insulin) then traffic to the

The Golgi complex, where there's processing that occurs.

What is the third step of the biosynthesis of peptide/protein hormones?

(use insulin as an example)

3) After processing, the large precursor is cleaved into the final fuctional product of the active hormone

What is the third step of the biosynthesis of peptide/protein hormones?

(use insulin as an example)

3) The vesicle undergoes exocytosis.

It's released first into the extracellular fluid of the

extracellular compartment and then moved into the circulatory system, carried by bulk flow

to distant target.

Peptide/protein hormones CANNOT enter their target cells. instead, they must __________

combine with receptors on the plasma membrane of the cell

that initiates signal transduction

Whjat is the largest family of cell receptors?

G protein

coupled receptors.

G protein coupled receptors bind to which type of hormones?

(catecholamine); epinephrine or norepinephrine

the binding of a G protein coupled receptor and a catecholamine would cause

a second messenger signaling cascade here to bring about a cellular response.

In terms of steroid hormones, _______ is one type of estrogen. It is on enzymatic step/

estradiol,

how do the steroid hormones bring about a physiological effect?

The steroids bind to cytoplasmic receptors or nuclear receptors, brought into the cells, bind to the DNA and activate/ represses gene expression

The catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine) are hydrophilic and are made by _____________

adrenal medulla

What is the synthesis and storage procedure of peptide/protein hormones?

made in advanced, stored in secretory vesicles

What is the synthesis and storage procedure of steroid hormones?

synthesized on demand; dervied from cholesterol

What is the synthesis and storage procedure of catecholamine hormones?

synthesized in advance from tyrosine; stored in vesicles

How are catecholamine hormones released from the parent cell?

exocytosis

How are steroid hormones released from the parent cell?

diffusion

How are peptide/protein hormones released from the parent cell?

exocytosis

Are peptide/protein hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

hydrophilic

Are steroid hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

hydrophobic

Are catecholamine hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

hydrophilic

Are steriod hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

hydrophobic

Where are the receptors of catechoolamine hormones?

on the surface of the target cell

Where are the receptors of the steroid hormones?

cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cell;

some have cell surface receptors

Where are the receptors of the peptide/protein hormones?

the cell surface membrane of the target cell

What is the response to receptor-ligand binding for peptide/protein hormones?

activation of intracellular signaling pathways

What is the response to receptor-ligand binding for steroid hormones?

regulation of gene expression

What is the response to receptor-ligand binding for catecholamine hormones?

activation of intracellular signaling pathways