Key Concepts in American Government and Politics

Limited government

A principle where government powers are restricted by law, often through a constitution.

Thomas Hobbes

A political philosopher who wrote Leviathan; believed people need a strong government to maintain order.

Factions

Groups of individuals with a common political purpose or interest.

Articles of Confederation

Written by the Second Continental Congress; created a weak national government with strong state sovereignty.

Federalist Papers

Written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.

Federalist No. 10

Main Ideas: Warns against the dangers of factions (interest groups). Argues that a large republic will prevent any single faction from dominating, since diversity will lead to competition and compromise.

Significance: Promotes the idea that a strong union can control factions better than small republics.

Federalist No. 51

Main Ideas: Argues for separation of powers and checks and balances. "If men were angels, no government would be necessary." Each branch must be independent and able to check the others.

Significance: Justifies the structure of the Constitution and explains how liberty will be preserved through institutional design.

Federalist No. 70

Main Ideas: Advocates for a single, strong executive. A unitary executive ensures accountability, energy, and efficiency in government.

Significance: Justifies the structure of the presidency in the Constitution.

Federalist No. 78

Main Ideas: Defends the independence of the judiciary and the concept of judicial review. Judges should serve for life to remain impartial.

Significance: Establishes the judiciary as the weakest but essential branch, enforcing the Constitution.

Brutus No. 1

Main Ideas: Argues that the new Constitution gives too much power to the federal government, especially through the Necessary and Proper Clause and Supremacy Clause. Warns that a large republic would be too distant from the people and would lead to tyranny.

Significance: Outlines key Anti-Federalist concerns and serves as the foundational argument against ratification of the Constitution.

Article 1

Establishes the legislative branch (Congress).

Article 2

Establishes the executive branch (President).

Article 3

Establishes the judicial branch (Supreme Court).

Article 4

Deals with states' powers and their interaction with the federal government.

Pluralist democracy

Multiple groups compete for influence; example: interest groups lobbying Congress.

Elitist democracy

Elites hold power; example: Electoral College limiting direct popular vote.

Direct democracy

Citizens vote directly on laws and policies.

Electoral college problem

Balanced influence between large and small states in presidential elections.

Constitution amendment process

Proposed by 2/3 of Congress or states; ratified by 3/4 of states.

Impeachment process

House impeaches (majority), Senate tries and convicts (2/3).

Article 5

Explains the amendment process.

Article 6

Establishes the Constitution as the supreme law (Supremacy Clause).

Article 7

Details the ratification process.

Dual federalism

Clear division between state and national governments ('layer cake').

Cooperative federalism

Shared responsibilities ('marble cake').

Fiscal federalism

Federal government uses money (grants) to influence states.

Denied powers

Powers explicitly denied to the federal or state governments.

Bicameralism

A legislature with two chambers (House and Senate).

Legislative branch powers

Make laws, declare war, tax, regulate commerce, approve appointments.

Judicial appointments confirmation

Senate approves by majority vote.

Speaker of the House

Leader of the House of Representatives; sets agenda, controls debate.

Majority and Minority Leaders

Leaders of their party in each chamber; manage legislative strategy.

Party whips

Ensure party members vote along party lines.

conference committees

Resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

rules committee

Controls debate and amendment rules in the House.

coalition

Temporary alliance for combined action.

hold

Senator delays a bill or nomination.

discharge petition

Forces a bill out of committee to the floor in the House.

partisan

Strong allegiance to a political party.

redistrict

Every 10 years after the census.

Vesting Clause

Gives each branch its respective powers.

State of the Union Address

President updates Congress on the nation and recommends policy.

cabinet

President's advisors; includes State, Defense, Treasury, etc.

President introduce legislation

No, but can suggest and influence it.

War Powers Act

Limits president's ability to commit troops without Congress.

Judiciary Act of 1789

Established the federal court system.

judicial independence

Judges should be free from political pressures.

John Marshall

Chief Justice who strengthened federal power and established judicial review.

appellate jurisdiction

Power of a court to review lower court decisions.

court curbing measures

Efforts by other branches to limit judicial power.

establish or abolish lower courts

Congress.

Rule of Four

Four justices must agree to hear a case.

spoils system

Giving jobs to political supporters; started by Andrew Jackson.

merit system

Hiring based on qualifications; reduced patronage.

interest group

Organizations seeking to influence policy; e.g., NRA, ACLU.

issue networks

Loose alliances of interest groups and bureaucrats on policy issues.

discretionary authority

Bureaucrats' ability to choose how to enforce laws.

rule making authority

Power to create regulations that have the force of law.

Congress oversees bureaucracy

Hearings, budget control, rewriting legislation.

civil liberties vs civil rights

Liberties = freedoms from gov; rights = equal treatment by gov.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Outlawed segregation and discrimination.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Banned literacy tests, helped enforce 15th Amendment.

Title IX

Banned sex discrimination in federally funded education.

Establishment Clause

Gov can't establish or promote a religion.

Free Exercise Clause

Protects religious practices.

clear and present danger test

Speech not protected if it poses an immediate threat.

libel vs slander

Libel = written falsehood; slander = spoken.

hate speech

Offensive speech targeting groups, but often protected.

prior restraint

Censorship before publication.

exclusionary rule

Illegally obtained evidence can't be used in court.

selective incorporation

Applying Bill of Rights to states using 14th Amendment.

total incorporation

Idea that all Bill of Rights should apply to states (not adopted).

due process clause

Gov must follow legal procedures fairly.

Seneca Falls Convention

First women's rights convention; launched suffrage movement.

Stonewall Riots

1969 LGBTQ+ protests against police; sparked modern gay rights movement.

Civil disobedience

Peacefully breaking laws to protest injustice.

Separate but equal doctrine

Justified segregation (from Plessy v. Ferguson).

Letter from Birmingham Jail

Written by MLK; defends nonviolent protest and urgency of civil rights.

Affirmative action

Policies favoring historically disadvantaged groups.

Individualism

Belief in individual responsibility and independence.

Equality of opportunity

Everyone should have the same starting point.

Free market

Economic system with minimal government interference.

Rule of law

Everyone is subject to the law.

Generational effects

How historical events shape a generation's political views.

Life-cycle effects

How age and stage of life influence political beliefs.

Globalization

Interconnectedness of the world economy and cultures.

Benchmark poll

Initial survey.

Tracking poll

Survey conducted over time.

Entrance/Exit poll

Polls conducted around elections.

Focus group

Small group discussion to measure opinions.

Libertarianism

Belief in minimal government in both economic and social areas.

Party realignment

Shift in party coalitions or dominant ideologies.

Fiscal policy

Gov't taxing and spending decisions.

Monetary policy

Federal Reserve's control of money supply and interest rates.

Keynesian economics

Gov should spend more during recessions to boost demand.

Supply-side economics

Tax cuts for businesses and the wealthy stimulate growth.

Laissez-faire

Little to no government interference in the economy.

Social policy examples

Welfare, healthcare, education funding.

Rational choice voting

Voting based on self-interest.

Voter turnout

Higher in presidential elections.