AP Euro Ch. 12-13

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Prince Klemens von Metternich

Austrian statesman; architect of the Congress of Vienna and leading conservative who sought to suppress nationalism and liberalism across Europe.

Tsar Alexander I

Russian tsar who co-created the Holy Alliance and played a major role in shaping post-Napoleonic diplomacy.

Viscount Castlereagh (Robert Stewart)

British foreign minister who defended the balance of power and opposed intervention in other nations’ domestic affairs.

Louis XVIII

Moderate Bourbon king restored after Napoleon; upheld the Charter of 1814 and balanced conservative and liberal pressures.

Charles X

Ultraconservative Bourbon king whose Four Ordinances provoked the July Revolution of 1830.

Louis Philippe (“Citizen King”)

Constitutional monarch installed in 1830; ruled for the bourgeoisie and fell in 1848 amid corruption and political unrest.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III)

Elected president of the Second Republic; seized power in a 1851 coup and established the authoritarian Second Empire.

Alphonse de Lamartine

Liberal poet and statesman who led the French provisional government after the February 1848 Revolution.

Louis Blanc

Socialist reformer who promoted national workshops to combat unemployment during the 1848 revolution.

General Louis Cavaignac

French general who crushed the June Days uprising, marking conservative victory over radical workers.

Lord Liverpool

British prime minister whose government responded to postwar unrest with repressive measures like the Corn Laws and Six Acts.

Henry “Orator” Hunt

British radical leader and key figure in the protest that ended in the Peterloo Massacre.

William Cobbett

Influential British radical journalist who criticized government policies and mobilized working-class opinion.

Frederick William III of Prussia

Prussian king who reversed earlier reforms and restored conservative, Junker-dominated governance.

Frederick William IV of Prussia

Rejected the German crown offered by the Frankfurt Parliament; opposed democratic German unification.

Archduke John of Austria

Appointed regent of Germany by the Frankfurt Parliament during its unification attempt.

Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria

Weak Habsburg emperor during the 1848 revolutions; fled Vienna and abdicated.

Francis Joseph (Franz Joseph)

Habsburg emperor from 1848; restored imperial authority with Russian support after crushing nationalist revolts.

Louis Kossuth

Hungarian nationalist leader whose speeches inspired uprisings in Vienna and the Hungarian Revolution.

Count Josip Jelacic

Croatian general who aided the Habsburgs by attacking Hungarian revolutionaries.

General Alfred Windischgrätz

Austrian general who suppressed uprisings in Prague and Vienna during 1848.

King Charles Albert of Piedmont

Supported Italian nationalist revolts and declared war on Austria; defeated in 1848.

Victor Emmanuel II

Successor to Charles Albert; later became the key monarch of Italian unification.

Francis Palacký

Czech nationalist leader who chaired the Pan-Slavic Congress and advocated equality for Slavic peoples.

Lord Byron

Romantic poet who fought in and died supporting Greek independence; symbol of Philhellenic nationalism.

Adam Smith

Founder of classical economics; promoted free markets, competition, and economic liberalism.

Thomas Malthus

Classical economist known for population theory predicting famine and poverty unless population was controlled.

David Ricardo

Classical economist who formulated the “Iron Law of Wages” and influenced industrial economic policy.

Jeremy Bentham

Founder of utilitarianism; advocated legal reform based on maximizing general welfare.

Friedrich List

German economist who supported state-directed industrialization to help nations compete with Britain.

Charles Fourier

Utopian socialist who proposed cooperative communities (phalansteries) to harmonize labor and society.

Robert Owen

Utopian socialist who established model industrial communities and emphasized cooperative labor.

Henri de Saint-Simon

Early socialist thinker who argued society should be directed by scientists, industrialists, and technocrats.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

Founding anarchist who declared “property is theft” and opposed centralized state power.

Karl Marx

Co-author of The Communist Manifesto; theorized class struggle and the inevitability of proletarian revolution.

Friedrich Engels

Co-author of the Manifesto; chronicled industrial workers and developed Marxist theory.

Conservatism

Ideology supporting monarchy, aristocracy, established churches, and gradual, organic change.

Concert of Europe

Post-1815 system in which great powers cooperated to maintain peace and suppress revolution.

Congress System

Series of great-power meetings (1818–1822) designed to preserve the Vienna settlement and stability.

Nationalism

Belief that political boundaries should align with shared cultural, ethnic, or linguistic identity.

Liberalism

Ideology promoting constitutionalism, civil liberties, religious toleration, and free markets.

Classical Economics

Economic doctrine favoring free markets, competition, and minimal government intervention.

Utopian Socialism

Early socialist thought promoting cooperative communities and social harmony without revolution.

Marxism

Scientific socialism predicting class conflict, proletarian revolution, and a communist future.

Anarchism

Ideology rejecting all state authority and advocating decentralized, voluntary cooperation.

Industrialization

Transition to mechanized production, factories, wage labor, and rapid urban growth.

Chartism

British working-class movement demanding political reforms, including universal male suffrage.

June Days (1848)

Violent conflict in Paris between workers and government forces; ended radical hopes in the Second Republic.

National Workshops

Government-run employment program proposed by Louis Blanc during 1848; symbolized socialist reform.

Pan-Slavism

Movement promoting unity and cooperation among Slavic peoples within multiethnic empires.

Magyarization

Hungarian policy seeking to impose Hungarian language and culture on non-Magyar groups.

Revolutions of 1848

Liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe; largely failed but reshaped political expectations.

Utilitarianism

Ethical theory seeking the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Free Trade / Anti–Corn Law League

Movement to repeal grain tariffs; major victory for free market ideology.

Zollverein

German customs union promoting tariff-free trade among German states; foundation for economic unification.

Pope Pius IX

Pope during 1848; fled Rome when radicals declared the Roman Republic.

Count Rudolf von Apponyi / Austrian Ministers

Conservative Habsburg officials who resisted nationalist and liberal reforms.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

German nationalist philosopher whose ideas shaped early 19th-century nationalism.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Founder of Young Italy; major nationalist ideologue influencing Italian uprisings.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian nationalist fighter referenced as a symbol of later unification movements.

Simón Bolívar

Venezuelan independence leader referenced in comparison to European nationalist struggles.

José de San Martín

South American independence leader mentioned in global context for revolutionary movements.

Dom Pedro I of Brazil

Leader who secured a peaceful Brazilian independence from Portugal.

William IV (Britain)

King during the Great Reform Bill of 1832; oversaw key liberalizing reforms.

Robert Peel

British prime minister who repealed the Corn Laws and shifted Britain toward free trade.

Feargus O’Connor

Chartist leader known for advocating mass democratic reforms through petitions and activism.

Thomas Newcomen / James Watt

Early steam engine pioneers whose innovations fueled industrialization.

Louis-Adolphe Thiers

French liberal statesman influential during the July Monarchy and early 19th-century politics.

Joachim Lelewel

Polish nationalist historian and activist referenced in failed Eastern European revolts.

The “Men of 1848”

Collective reformers, liberals, and nationalists who led assemblies and movements during the 1848 revolutions.

Four Ordinances (1830)

Reactionary laws issued by Charles X restricting press and elections; triggered the July Revolution.

July Revolution (1830)

Uprising that overthrew Charles X and installed Louis Philippe as a constitutional monarch.

Great Reform Bill (1832)

British law expanding suffrage and redistributing seats to prevent revolutionary unrest.

Carlsbad Decrees (1819)

Repressive laws dissolving student groups and censoring the press in German states.

Holy Alliance (1815)

Alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia to uphold Christian values and suppress revolution.

Quadruple Alliance (renewed 1815)

Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia cooperating to maintain the post-Napoleonic order.

Peterloo Massacre (1819)

British troops attacked peaceful reform demonstrators; symbol of state repression.

Six Acts (1819)

British laws restricting public meetings and press freedoms following Peterloo.

Spanish Revolution of 1820

Liberal uprising in Spain suppressed with French intervention under the Concert of Europe.

Greek War of Independence (1821–1830)

Successful Greek revolt against Ottoman rule; inspired widespread European support.

Eastern Question

Diplomatic issue concerning the fate of the declining Ottoman Empire.

Magyar Revolution (1848)

Hungarian nationalist and liberal revolt led by Kossuth; crushed by Austrian and Russian forces.

Prague Pan-Slavic Congress (1848)

Assembly promoting Slavic unity and autonomy within the Austrian Empire.

Frankfurt Parliament (1848–1849)

Liberal assembly seeking German unification; failed when Prussian king refused the crown.

Second Republic (France, 1848–1851)

French republican regime established after 1848; ended by Louis Napoleon’s coup.

Second Empire (France)

Authoritarian regime established by Napoleon III following his 1851 coup.

Industrial Working Class (Proletariat)

Urban wage laborers whose exploitation shaped socialist and Marxist theory.

Dictatorship of the Proletariat

Marxist transitional phase in which workers control the state before achieving communism.

Serf Emancipation (Austria, 1848)

Habsburg abolition of serfdom to prevent rural uprisings; one of the few lasting reforms of 1848.