Ap Psych Unit 4 Final Study Guide

Attributions

Explanations we make about the causes of behavior, whether our own or others'.

Dispositional Attributions

Attributing behavior to internal characteristics such as personality, traits, or abilities.

Situational Attributions

Attributing behavior to external factors, such as the environment or circumstances.

Explanatory Style

A person’s habitual way of explaining events, typically as positive or negative.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Explaining negative events as temporary, external, and specific, leading to a more positive outlook.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Explaining negative events as permanent, internal, and global, leading to a negative outlook.

Actor/Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational factors but others’ behavior to dispositional factors.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that one controls their own fate through effort and actions.

External Locus of Control

The belief that external forces, such as luck or fate, determine outcomes.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure to something increases our liking for it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When expectations about a person or situation lead to behaviors that make those expectations come true.

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself by comparing to others.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing yourself to someone who is better off, which can motivate improvement but also lower self-esteem.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing yourself to someone worse off to boost self-esteem.

Relative Deprivation

The feeling of being worse off compared to others, even if one is not actually deprived.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people, often oversimplified and not always accurate.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used in the working memory at a given time.

Prejudice

A negative, preconceived attitude toward a group and its members, often based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members based on prejudice.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs or feelings toward a group or object that influence behavior.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to victim-blaming.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to see members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are.

In-Group Bias

The tendency to favor one’s own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture based on the standards of one’s own culture, often seeing one’s own culture as superior.

Belief Perseverance

Holding onto one’s initial beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting thoughts or beliefs, often leading to attitude change.

Attitude Formation

The process by which people develop attitudes through experience, social influences, and conditioning.

Attitude Change

The process of modifying one’s attitudes due to persuasion, experience, or cognitive dissonance.

Affect

A broad term that encompasses emotions, moods, and feelings.

Internal Factors

Personal characteristics like personality, mood, and past experiences that influence emotions and behavior.

External Factors

Environmental or situational influences, such as social interactions and surroundings, that impact emotions and behavior.

Physiological Experiences

Bodily reactions to emotions, such as increased heart rate or sweating.

Cognitive Experiences

Mental interpretations and thoughts associated with emotions.

Cognitive Label

The mental interpretation assigned to physiological arousal to identify an emotion, as explained by the Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of emotion.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

The theory that facial expressions can influence emotions, not just reflect them.

Cognitive Appraisal

The process of evaluating a situation to determine its emotional significance and impact.

Broaden and Build Theory

A theory suggesting that positive emotions expand thinking and behavior, leading to long-term personal growth and resilience.

Universality of Emotions Theory

A theory stating that six basic emotions—anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear—are universally recognized across all cultures.

Display Rules

Cultural norms that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed.

Elicitor

A stimulus or event that triggers an emotional response.

Drive-Reduction Theory

A theory that suggests motivation arises from the need to reduce internal physiological tension (drives) and restore homeostasis.

Homeostasis

The body’s tendency to maintain a stable internal state, such as regulating temperature, hunger, and fluid balance.

Arousal Theory

A theory stating that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies by individual and situation.

Optimal Level of Arousal

The ideal amount of stimulation needed for peak performance and well-being.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A principle stating that performance improves with arousal up to a certain point, after which too much arousal hinders performance.

Self-Determination Theory

A theory that emphasizes intrinsic motivation and the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness to enhance personal growth and fulfillment.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in a behavior for personal satisfaction and internal rewards rather than external incentives.

Incentive Theory

A theory suggesting that motivation is driven by external rewards or incentives rather than internal needs.

Extrinsic Motivation

Performing a behavior to gain external rewards or avoid punishment.

Instincts

Innate, biologically programmed behaviors that occur in response to specific stimuli.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

A theory describing three types of conflicts that arise when making decisions: approach-approach, approach-avoidance, and avoidance-avoidance.

Approach-Approach Conflicts

A conflict between two equally desirable options.

Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

A conflict involving one option that has both positive and negative aspects.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts

A conflict between two equally undesirable options.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

A theory suggesting that some individuals have a higher need for varied and intense sensory experiences.

Thrill Seeking

The desire for physically risky activities, such as skydiving or extreme sports.

Adventure Seeking

The tendency to seek novel and exciting experiences, such as traveling to unfamiliar places.

Disinhibition

A preference for impulsive and unrestrained behaviors, often in social settings.

Boredom Susceptibility

A tendency to become easily bored and seek stimulation to avoid monotony.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger by signaling the brain to eat.

Leptin

A hormone that regulates energy balance by signaling the brain to reduce appetite.

Hypothalamus (VMH, LH)

VMH: Regulates satiety; LH: Regulates hunger.

Satiety

The feeling of fullness that reduces the desire to eat.

Pituitary Gland

A gland in the brain that regulates growth, metabolism, and other bodily functions by releasing hormones.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A persuasion strategy where a large, unreasonable request is made first, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

Conformity

The tendency to adjust one’s behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to align with group norms.

Obedience

Following direct orders or commands from an authority figure.

Individualism

A cultural orientation that values personal independence, self-expression, and individual achievement.

Collectivism

A cultural orientation that prioritizes group harmony and collective well-being.

Multiculturalism

The coexistence and appreciation of diverse cultural traditions within a society.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussions to strengthen the dominant viewpoint.

Groupthink

A phenomenon where the desire for group harmony leads to poor decision-making.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible for taking action in a group setting.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to exert less effort in a group than when working alone.

Deindividuation

A psychological state where individuals lose self-awareness in groups.

Social Facilitation

The tendency to perform better on simple tasks in the presence of others.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our opinions.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation to achieve.

Social Traps

Situations where individuals pursue short-term gains leading to long-term negative consequences.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological principles to workplace settings.

Burnout

A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion from prolonged stress.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Prosocial Behavior

Actions intended to benefit others.

Social Debt

A sense of obligation to return a favor received from someone else.

Social Reciprocity Norm

An expectation to respond to kindness with kindness.

Social Responsibility Norm

An expectation that people should help those in need.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present.

Situational Variables

External factors that influence behavior, such as environment or social context.

Attentional Variables

Factors that affect focus on stimuli, such as distractions or motivation.

Psychodynamic Theory

A psychological approach emphasizing unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

Unconscious Processes

Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used to reduce anxiety.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality to avoid dealing with painful situations.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions from the original source to a less threatening target.

Projection

Attributing one’s own unwanted thoughts to someone else.

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors with logical but false explanations.

Reaction Formation

Expressing the opposite of one’s true feelings to hide unacceptable impulses.