bio
Genetics is the study of heredity and how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
Gregor Mendel is known as the “Father of Genetics.”
Why did Mendel use pea plants?
* Easy to grow
* Short generation time
* Many visible traits
* Can self-pollinate or cross-pollinate
* Produce many offspring
Examples of traits studied:
* Flower colour
* Seed shape
* Plant height
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VOCABULARY
Gene
* A segment of DNA that controls a trait.
Allele
* Different forms of the same gene.
Example:
P = purple flowers
p = white flowers
Dominant Allele
* Expressed whenever it is present.
* Represented by a capital letter.
Example:
P = purple
Recessive Allele
* Only expressed when two copies are present.
* Represented by a lowercase letter.
Example:
p = white
Genotype
* Genetic makeup of an organism.
Examples:
PP
Pp
pp
Phenotype
* Physical appearance of an organism.
Examples:
Purple flower
White flower
Homozygous
* Two identical alleles.
Examples:
PP
pp
Heterozygous
* Two different alleles.
Example:
Pp
Pure Breeding
* Homozygous for a trait.
Gamete
* Sex cell (sperm or egg).
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MENDEL’S LAWS
Law of Dominance
* A dominant allele masks a recessive allele.
Example:
Pp = Purple flower
Law of Segregation
* Alleles separate during gamete formation.
* Each gamete receives only one allele.
Example:
Parent = Pp
Gametes:
P
p
Law of Independent Assortment
* Different genes assort independently during meiosis.
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MONOHYBRID CROSSES
A monohybrid cross studies one trait.
Example:
P = Purple
p = White
Cross:
Pp × Pp
Punnett Square
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Neither allele completely dominates.
Example:
Snapdragons
RR = Red
WW = White
RW = Pink
Cross:
RW × RW
Genotype Ratio:
1 RR : 2 RW : 1 WW
Phenotype Ratio:
1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White
CODOMINANCE
Both alleles are expressed equally.
Example:
AB Blood Type
Genotype:
IAIB
Phenotype:
AB
MULTIPLE ALLELES
More than two alleles exist in a population.
Example:
ABO Blood Group
Alleles:
IA
IB
i
BLOOD TYPES
Type A
Genotypes:
IAIA or IAi
Type B
Genotypes:
IBIB or IBi
Type AB
Genotype:
IAIB
Type O
Genotype:
ii
Can Type A and Type B Parents Have a Type O Child?
Yes.
If:
Father = IAi
Mother = IBi
Possible Blood Types:
AB
A
B
O
CELL CYCLE
Purpose:
* Growth
* Repair
* Replacement of cells
Stages:
G1
S
G2
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
INTERPHASE
G1 Phase
Cell grows and carries out normal functions.
S Phase
DNA replication occurs.
G2 Phase
Cell prepares for division.
MITOSIS
Purpose:
Growth and repair.
Produces:
2 genetically identical diploid cells.
PROPHASE
Events:
* Chromosomes condense
* Nuclear membrane disappears
* Nucleolus disappears
* Spindle fibres form
METAPHASE
Events:
* Chromosomes line up at the equator
ANAPHASE
Events:
* Sister chromatids separate
TELOPHASE
Events:
* Nuclear membranes reform
* Chromosomes uncoil
CYTOKINESIS
Division of the cytoplasm.
Animal Cells:
Cleavage furrow forms.
Plant Cells:
Cell plate forms.
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
Chromosome consists of:
* Two sister chromatids
* One centromere
DIPLOID VS HAPLOID
Diploid (2n)
* Two sets of chromosomes
* Human body cells
* 46 chromosomes
Haploid (n)
* One set of chromosomes
* Human gametes
* 23 chromosomes
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
Chromosome pairs that:
* Carry the same genes
* One comes from the mother
* One comes from the father
Humans have 23 homologous pairs.
MEIOSIS
Purpose:
Produce gametes.
Produces:
4 genetically unique haploid cells.
MEIOSIS I
Separates homologous chromosomes.
CROSSING OVER
Occurs during Prophase I.
Definition:
Exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes.
Importance:
Creates genetic variation.
RANDOM ASSORTMENT
Occurs during Metaphase I.
Definition:
Homologous pairs line up randomly.
Importance:
Creates unique chromosome combinations.
MEIOSIS II
Separates sister chromatids.
MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS
Mitosis
* 2 cells produced
* Diploid
* Genetically identical
* Growth and repair
Meiosis
* 4 cells produced
* Haploid
* Genetically different
* Produces gametes
NONDISJUNCTION
Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.
Can result in extra or missing chromosomes.
DOWN SYNDROME
Cause:
Extra chromosome 21.
Chromosome Number:
47
Usually caused by nondisjunction during meiosis.
DNA
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Shape:
Double Helix
Function:
Stores genetic information.
NUCLEOTIDE
Three Components:
* Phosphate Group
* Deoxyribose Sugar
* Nitrogenous Base
NITROGENOUS BASES
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIRING
A pairs with T
C pairs with G
DNA REPLICATION
Purpose:
Make identical copies of DNA.
Location:
Nucleus
Result:
Two identical DNA molecules.
TRANSCRIPTION
Purpose:
Create mRNA from DNA.
Location:
Nucleus
DNA → mRNA
Remember:
RNA uses Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T).
TRANSLATION
Purpose:
Make proteins.
Location:
Ribosome
mRNA is read and amino acids are joined together to form a protein.
MUTATIONS
A mutation is a change in DNA sequence.
Types:
* Deletion
* Duplication
* Inversion
* Translocation
DELETION
DNA segment removed.
DUPLICATION
DNA segment repeated.
INVERSION
DNA segment reversed.
TRANSLOCATION
DNA segment moves to another chromosome.
SEX-LINKED TRAITS
Traits located on sex chromosomes.
Most are located on the X chromosome.
RED-GREEN COLOUR BLINDNESS
Inheritance:
X-linked recessive.
XC = Normal Vision
Xc = Colour Blind
Male:
XcY
Colour blind boys inherit the allele from their mother because fathers pass a Y chromosome to their sons.
TAY-SACHS DISEASE
Cause:
Missing enzyme that breaks down lipids in nerve cells.
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive.
Treatment:
No cure currently available.
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
Cause:
Mutation in hemoglobin gene.
Effects:
* Sickle-shaped red blood cells
* Reduced oxygen transport
* Blocked blood vessels
Inheritance:
Autosomal recessive.
HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE
Cause:
Dominant mutation.
Effects:
* Nervous system degeneration
* Loss of motor control
* Cognitive decline
Inheritance:
Autosomal dominant.
KARYOTYPE
A photograph of chromosomes arranged in pairs.
Used to:
* Determine sex
* Detect chromosome abnormalities
* Diagnose genetic disorders
PEDIGREE
A family tree used to track inheritance patterns.
Symbols:
Square = Male
Circle = Female
Shaded = Has trait
CLONING
Producing genetically identical organisms.
Uses:
* Research
* Agriculture
* Medicine
* Conservation
GENETIC COUNSELLING
Provides information about:
* Inherited disorders
* Family risk
* Testing options
AMNIOCENTESIS
Prenatal test in which amniotic fluid is sampled and fetal cells are analyzed.
Can detect:
* Genetic disorders
* Chromosomal disorders
GMOs
Genetically Modified Organisms.
Definition:
Organisms whose DNA has been altered through biotechnology.
Advantages:
* Increased crop yield
* Disease resistance
* Pest resistance
Disadvantages:
* Ethical concerns
* Environmental concerns
DNA REPLICATION → TRANSCRIPTION → TRANSLATION
DNA (Nucleus)
↓ Replication
DNA Copy
DNA
↓ Transcription
mRNA
mRNA
↓ Translation
Protein
Final Product:
Protein
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Function:
* Brings oxygen into the body
* Removes carbon dioxide
* Works with the circulatory system to supply cells with oxygen
Why do organisms require oxygen and produce carbon dioxide?
Oxygen is required for cellular respiration.
Cellular Respiration:
Glucose + Oxygen → Energy (ATP) + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Cells use oxygen to release energy from food.
Carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product and must be removed.
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PATHWAY OF AIR
Nasal Cavity
↓
Pharynx
↓
Larynx
↓
Trachea
↓
Bronchi
↓
Bronchioles
↓
Alveoli
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NASAL CAVITY
Functions:
* Warms air
* Moistens air
* Filters air
Nasal Hairs:
* Trap large particles
Mucus:
* Traps dust and microorganisms
Blood Capillaries:
* Warm incoming air
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PHARYNX
Common passageway for:
* Air
* Food
Also called the throat.
⸻
UVULA
Functions:
* Prevents food from entering nasal cavity
* Helps with speech
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EPIGLOTTIS
Functions:
* Covers trachea during swallowing
* Prevents choking
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LARYNX
Also called the voice box.
Contains vocal cords.
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TRACHEA
Also called the windpipe.
Contains cartilage rings that prevent collapse.
Lined with:
* Cilia
* Mucus
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CILIA
Tiny hair-like structures.
Function:
* Sweep mucus upward toward throat
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BRONCHI
Two branches of the trachea leading to lungs.
Right Bronchus → Right Lung
Left Bronchus → Left Lung
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BRONCHIOLES
Smaller branches inside lungs.
Lead to alveoli.
⸻
ALVEOLI
Tiny air sacs.
Site of gas exchange.
Adaptations:
* Thin walls
* Moist surface
* Large surface area
* Rich blood supply
Gas Exchange:
Oxygen moves:
Alveoli → Blood
Carbon Dioxide moves:
Blood → Alveoli
By diffusion.
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BREATHING MECHANICS
Two main muscles:
1. Diaphragm
2. Intercostal Muscles
⸻
INHALATION (INSPIRATION)
Diaphragm:
* Contracts
* Moves downward
Intercostal Muscles:
* Contract
* Lift ribs upward
Result:
* Chest cavity volume increases
* Pressure decreases
* Air enters lungs
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EXHALATION (EXPIRATION)
Diaphragm:
* Relaxes
* Moves upward
Intercostal Muscles:
* Relax
Result:
* Chest cavity volume decreases
* Pressure increases
* Air leaves lungs
⸻
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Located in the brainstem.
Function:
* Controls breathing rate
Responds to:
* Carbon dioxide levels
More CO₂:
* Faster breathing
Less CO₂:
* Slower breathing
⸻
LUNG VOLUMES
Tidal Volume
* Normal amount of air breathed in and out
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
* Extra air inhaled after normal breath
Expiratory Reserve Volume
* Extra air exhaled after normal breath
Residual Volume
* Air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation
Vital Capacity
* Maximum amount of air exhaled after deepest breath
Total Lung Capacity
* Total amount of air lungs can hold
⸻
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Functions:
* Transport oxygen
* Transport nutrients
* Remove wastes
* Maintain homeostasis
* Transport hormones
Humans have a CLOSED circulatory system.
Blood remains inside vessels.
⸻
BLOOD VESSELS
ARTERIES
Function:
* Carry blood away from heart
Characteristics:
* Thick walls
* High pressure
* Small lumen
* No valves
Usually oxygen-rich
Exception:
Pulmonary artery
⸻
VEINS
Function:
* Carry blood toward heart
Characteristics:
* Thin walls
* Low pressure
* Large lumen
* Valves present
Usually oxygen-poor
Exception:
Pulmonary vein
⸻
CAPILLARIES
Smallest blood vessels.
Functions:
* Gas exchange
* Nutrient exchange
* Waste exchange
Walls are one cell thick.
⸻
HEART STRUCTURE
Blood Flow:
Body
↓
Vena Cava
↓
Right Atrium
↓
Right Ventricle
↓
Pulmonary Artery
↓
Lungs
↓
Pulmonary Vein
↓
Left Atrium
↓
Left Ventricle
↓
Aorta
↓
Body
⸻
HEART CHAMBERS
Right Atrium
* Receives deoxygenated blood
Right Ventricle
* Pumps blood to lungs
Left Atrium
* Receives oxygenated blood
Left Ventricle
* Pumps blood to body
⸻
SEPTUM
Wall separating left and right sides of heart.
Prevents mixing of blood.
⸻
HEART VALVES
Function:
* Prevent backflow of blood
Types:
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
Aortic Semilunar Valve
⸻
SA NODE
Sinoatrial Node
Known as:
* Natural pacemaker
Initiates heartbeat.
⸻
AV NODE
Atrioventricular Node
Receives signal from SA node.
Delays impulse slightly.
Allows ventricles to fill before contraction.
⸻
BLOOD
Components:
1. Plasma
2. Red Blood Cells
3. White Blood Cells
4. Platelets
⸻
PLASMA
Liquid component of blood.
Functions:
* Transport nutrients
* Transport hormones
* Transport wastes
⸻
RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)
Function:
* Carry oxygen
Contain:
* Hemoglobin
⸻
HEMOGLOBIN
Protein in red blood cells.
Function:
* Binds oxygen
Allows oxygen transport.
⸻
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTES)
Function:
* Fight infection
* Defend body
Part of immune system.
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PLATELETS
Function:
* Blood clotting
Prevent blood loss.
⸻
BLOOD PRESSURE
Force of blood against artery walls.
Measured using:
Sphygmomanometer
Example:
120/80
120 = Systolic Pressure
80 = Diastolic Pressure
⸻
SYSTOLIC PRESSURE
Pressure when heart contracts.
⸻
DIASTOLIC PRESSURE
Pressure when heart relaxes.
⸻
HYPERTENSION
High blood pressure.
Can increase risk of:
* Stroke
* Heart attack
* Kidney disease
⸻
STROKE VOLUME
Amount of blood pumped per heartbeat.
⸻
CARDIAC OUTPUT
Amount of blood pumped per minute.
Formula:
Cardiac Output = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume
⸻
ECG
Electrocardiogram
Measures electrical activity of heart.
Used to detect:
* Irregular heartbeat
* Heart damage
⸻
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Heart → Lungs → Heart
Purpose:
* Oxygenate blood
⸻
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Heart → Body → Heart
Purpose:
* Deliver oxygen to tissues
⸻
HOMEOSTASIS DURING EXERCISE
Body responds by:
* Increasing heart rate
* Increasing breathing rate
* Increasing cardiac output
* Redirecting blood to muscles
* Sweating to cool body
Purpose:
Maintain stable internal conditions.
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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Functions:
* Break down food
* Absorb nutrients
* Eliminate waste
⸻
DIGESTIVE TRACT
Mouth
↓
Pharynx
↓
Esophagus
↓
Stomach
↓
Small Intestine
↓
Large Intestine
↓
Rectum
↓
Anus
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MECHANICAL DIGESTION
Physical breakdown of food.
Examples:
* Chewing
* Churning
⸻
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Chemical breakdown of food using enzymes.
Examples:
* Amylase
* Pepsin
⸻
SALIVA
Functions:
1. Moistens food
2. Contains amylase
Amylase begins carbohydrate digestion.
⸻
TONGUE
Functions:
1. Forms bolus
2. Pushes food for swallowing
⸻
ESOPHAGUS
Moves food to stomach.
Uses:
Peristalsis
⸻
PERISTALSIS
Wave-like muscular contractions.
Move food through digestive tract.
⸻
STOMACH
Functions:
* Stores food
* Mixes food
* Begins protein digestion
Produces:
* HCl
* Pepsin
* Mucus
⸻
HCl
Hydrochloric Acid
Functions:
* Kills bacteria
* Activates pepsin
⸻
PEPSIN
Function:
* Digests proteins
⸻
MUCUS
Function:
* Protects stomach lining
⸻
CHYME
Semi-liquid food mixture leaving stomach.
⸻
HEARTBURN
Cause:
Stomach acid enters esophagus.
Usually caused by weakened cardiac sphincter.
⸻
SMALL INTESTINE
Main site of:
* Digestion
* Absorption
Adaptations:
* Long length
* Folds
* Villi
* Microvilli
Large surface area increases absorption.
⸻
DUODENUM
First section.
Functions:
* Receives bile
* Receives pancreatic enzymes
* Most chemical digestion
⸻
JEJUNUM
Main nutrient absorption.
⸻
ILEUM
Final nutrient absorption.
⸻
VILLI
Finger-like projections.
Function:
Increase surface area.
⸻
LIVER
Functions:
* Produces bile
* Processes nutrients
* Detoxifies blood
⸻
GALL BLADDER
Functions:
* Stores bile
* Releases bile into small intestine
⸻
PANCREAS
Functions:
* Produces digestive enzymes
* Produces bicarbonate
⸻
BILE
Function:
Emulsifies fats.
Breaks large fat droplets into smaller droplets.
Makes fat digestion easier.
⸻
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Mouth:
* Amylase begins digestion
Small Intestine:
* Pancreatic amylase continues digestion
End Product:
Glucose
⸻
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
Stomach:
* Pepsin begins digestion
Small Intestine:
* Trypsin continues digestion
End Product:
Amino Acids
⸻
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
Small Intestine:
* Bile emulsifies fats
* Lipase digests fats
End Product:
Fatty Acids + Glycerol
⸻
EVOLUTION
Evolution:
Change in populations over time.
Individuals do NOT evolve.
Populations evolve.
⸻
DARWIN
Proposed:
Natural Selection
Book:
On the Origin of Species
⸻
WALLACE
Independently developed theory of natural selection.
⸻
LAMARCK
Proposed:
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Example:
Giraffes stretch necks and pass longer necks to offspring.
This theory is incorrect.
⸻
NATURAL SELECTION
Requirements:
1. Variation
2. Overproduction
3. Competition
4. Differential Survival
5. Reproduction
Result:
Adaptation
⸻
ADAPTATION
Inherited characteristic that increases survival and reproduction.
⸻
SELECTIVE ADVANTAGE
A characteristic that improves survival or reproduction.
Example:
Antibiotic resistance
⸻
SELECTIVE PRESSURE
Environmental factor that influences survival.
Examples:
* Predators
* Disease
* Climate
* Competition
⸻
VARIATION
Differences among individuals in a population.
Sources:
* Mutation
* Crossing Over
* Random Assortment
⸻
MUTATION
Ultimate source of new alleles.
Creates genetic variation.
⸻
FOSSIL
Preserved remains or traces of organisms.
⸻
FOSSIL RECORD
Collection of fossils showing evolutionary history.
Provides evidence for evolution.
⸻
RADIOACTIVE DATING
Uses radioactive isotopes to determine fossil age.
⸻
UNIFORMITARIANISM
Proposed by Lyell.
Earth changes gradually over long periods of time.
⸻
CATASTROPHISM
Proposed by Cuvier.
Earth shaped by sudden catastrophic events.
⸻
BIOGEOGRAPHY
Study of species distribution around Earth.
Provides evidence for evolution.
⸻
EMBRYOLOGY
Study of embryos.
Similar embryos suggest common ancestry.
⸻
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
Same evolutionary origin.
Different functions.
Example:
Human arm
Whale flipper
Bat wing
Evidence of common ancestry.
⸻
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES
Different origins.
Same function.
Example:
Bird wing
Insect wing
Not evidence of close ancestry.
⸻
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES
Structures with little or no function.
Examples:
* Human appendix
* Whale pelvis
Evidence of evolution.
⸻
MIMICRY
One species resembles another.
Example:
Syrphid fly resembles wasp.
Provides protection.
⸻
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Humans select traits.
Examples:
* Dog breeding
* Crop breeding
⸻
DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
One extreme phenotype favored.
Graph shifts in one direction.
⸻
STABILIZING SELECTION
Average phenotype favored.
Extremes selected against.
⸻
DISRUPTIVE SELECTION
Both extremes favored.
Middle selected against.
⸻
GENETIC DRIFT
Random change in allele frequencies.
Most significant in small populations.
⸻
FOUNDER EFFECT
Small group starts new population.
Different allele frequencies from original population.
⸻
BOTTLENECK EFFECT
Population drastically reduced.
Loss of genetic variation.
⸻
GENE FLOW
Movement of alleles between populations.
Occurs through migration.
⸻
NON-RANDOM MATING
Individuals choose specific mates.
Can reduce variation.
⸻
SPECIES
A group of organisms that can interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring.
⸻
SPECIATION
Formation of new species.
⸻
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
Requires:
Geographic isolation
Example:
Mountain separates populations.
⸻
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
Occurs without geographic isolation.
⸻
PRE-ZYGOTIC ISOLATION
Prevents fertilization.
Examples:
* Different mating seasons
* Different mating songs
* Different habitats
⸻
POST-ZYGOTIC ISOLATION
Occurs after fertilization.
Example:
Sterile hybrids
Example:
Mule
DIVERSITY
Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
PROKARYOTES
* No nucleus
* No membrane-bound organelles
* Circular DNA
* Smaller
* Examples: Eubacteria, Archaebacteria
EUKARYOTES
* Nucleus present
* Membrane-bound organelles
* Linear chromosomes
* Larger
* Examples: Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals
Three Differences:
1. Nucleus vs no nucleus
2. Organelles vs no organelles
3. Larger vs smaller
⸻
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Mnemonic:
King Philip Came Over For Good Soup
⸻
Binomial Nomenclature
Genus + Species
Example:
Homo sapiens
Rules:
* Genus capitalized
* Species lowercase
* Italicized
Purpose:
* Universal naming system
* Avoids confusion
* Shows relationships
⸻
Dichotomous Key
Used to identify organisms using paired choices.
Example:
1a Has wings → Step 2
1b No wings → Step 3
⸻
Six Kingdoms
1. Archaebacteria
2. Eubacteria
3. Protista
4. Fungi
5. Plantae
6. Animalia
⸻
VIRUSES
Virus Structure:
* DNA or RNA
* Capsid
* Attachment proteins
* Sometimes envelope
Why Viruses Are Not Living:
* Not made of cells
* Cannot reproduce independently
* No metabolism
* Need host cell
⸻
DNA Virus vs RNA Virus
DNA Virus:
* Contains DNA
* More stable
RNA Virus:
* Contains RNA
* Mutates faster
⸻
Lytic Cycle
Attachment
↓
Penetration
↓
Replication
↓
Assembly
↓
Lysis
Host cell bursts.
⸻
Lysogenic Cycle
Attachment
↓
Penetration
↓
Integration into host DNA
↓
Host reproduces
↓
Virus DNA copied
Cell survives initially.
⸻
ARCHAEBACTERIA
Characteristics:
* Prokaryotic
* Unicellular
* Extreme environments
Three Groups:
Methanogens
* Produce methane
Halophiles
* Salt-loving
Thermoacidophiles
* Hot acidic environments
⸻
EUBACTERIA
Characteristics:
* Prokaryotic
* Peptidoglycan cell wall
* Binary fission
Examples:
* E. coli
* Streptococcus
⸻
Binary Fission
DNA Replication
↓
Cell Growth
↓
Cell Division
↓
Two Identical Cells
⸻
Conjugation
DNA transfer through pilus.
Importance:
* Genetic variation
* Antibiotic resistance
⸻
Antibiotic Resistance
Mutation
↓
Antibiotic kills susceptible bacteria
↓
Resistant bacteria survive
↓
Resistant bacteria reproduce
Natural Selection
⸻
PROTISTS
Characteristics:
* Eukaryotic
* Mostly unicellular
* Aquatic
Three Groups:
Animal-like
* Amoeba
* Paramecium
Plant-like
* Algae
* Euglena
Fungus-like
* Slime molds
⸻
Amoeba
* Uses pseudopods
* Phagocytosis
⸻
Algae
* Photosynthetic
* Oxygen producer
⸻
Euglena
* Chloroplasts
* Flagellum
* Photosynthesis
* Can also feed heterotrophically
⸻
Malaria
Cause:
Plasmodium
Kingdom:
Protista
⸻
FUNGI
Characteristics:
* Eukaryotic
* Heterotrophic
* Chitin cell walls
* Reproduce with spores
Examples:
* Mushrooms
* Mold
* Yeast
⸻
External Digestion
Release enzymes
↓
Digest food outside body
↓
Absorb nutrients
⸻
Fungi vs Plants
FUNGI
* Heterotrophic
* Chitin
* No chloroplasts
PLANTS
* Autotrophic
* Cellulose
* Chloroplasts
⸻
PLANTS
Biodiversity vs Monoculture
BIODIVERSITY
* Many species
* Stable ecosystem
* Disease resistance
MONOCULTURE
* One crop species
* Low diversity
* Disease risk
⸻
Bryophytes
Definition:
Nonvascular plants
Examples:
* Mosses
* Liverworts
Characteristics:
* No xylem
* No phloem
* Need water for reproduction
⸻
Vascular Plants
Contain:
* Xylem
* Phloem
⸻
Xylem
Function:
Water and minerals
Direction:
Roots → Leaves
⸻
Phloem
Function:
Sugars
Direction:
Throughout plant
⸻
Alternation of Generations
Sporophyte (2n)
↓ meiosis
Spores (n)
↓
Gametophyte (n)
↓
Gametes
↓ fertilization
Zygote (2n)
↓
Sporophyte
⸻
Moss Life Cycle
Spores
↓
Gametophyte
↓
Egg + Sperm
↓
Zygote
↓
Sporophyte
↓
Capsule
↓
Spores
Know:
* Capsule
* Sporophyte
* Gametophyte
* Spores
⸻
Fern Life Cycle
Fern
↓
Sori
↓
Spores
↓
Prothallus
↓
Gametes
↓
Fertilization
↓
Young Fern
Know:
* Frond
* Sori
* Sporangia
* Prothallus
⸻
Gymnosperms
Characteristics:
* Naked seeds
* Cones
* Wind pollination
* Evergreen
Examples:
* Pine
* Spruce
* Fir
⸻
Angiosperms
Characteristics:
* Flowers
* Fruit
* Seeds enclosed
Examples:
* Apple tree
* Rose
* Maple
⸻
Flower Structure
Anther
* Produces pollen
Pollen Grain
* Male gamete
Stigma
* Receives pollen
Style
* Connects stigma and ovary
Ovary
* Contains ovules
Ovule
* Female gamete
Petals
* Attract pollinators
⸻
Plant Tissues
Meristematic
* Growth
Dermal
* Protection
Ground
* Photosynthesis
* Storage
Vascular
* Transport
⸻
Leaf Structure
Blade
* Main leaf surface
Petiole
* Connects leaf to stem
Cuticle
* Reduces water loss
Palisade Mesophyll
* Photosynthesis
Spongy Mesophyll
* Gas exchange
Veins
* Xylem + Phloem
⸻
Stomata
Openings in leaves.
Functions:
* Gas exchange
* Water loss
⸻
Guard Cells
Control opening and closing of stomata.
⸻
Transpiration
Water loss from leaves.
Functions:
* Pulls water upward
* Cools plant
* Moves minerals
⸻
Simple vs Compound Leaves
Simple:
* One blade
Compound:
* Multiple leaflets
⸻
Monocots vs Dicots
MONOCOTS
* 1 cotyledon
* Parallel veins
* Fibrous roots
* Flower parts in 3s
Examples:
Corn
Grass
DICOTS
* 2 cotyledons
* Net veins
* Taproot
* Flower parts in 4s or 5s
Examples:
Bean
Maple
⸻
Seeds
Contain:
* Embryo
* Stored food
* Seed coat
Functions:
* Protection
* Survival
* Dispersal
⸻
Seed Dispersal
Wind
* Dandelion
Water
* Coconut
Animals
* Burrs
Explosive
* Touch-me-not
⸻
Fruit vs Vegetable
Fruit:
* Comes from ovary
* Contains seeds
Examples:
Tomato
Apple
Pepper
Vegetable:
* Root, stem, leaf, or flower
Examples:
Carrot
Celery
Broccoli
⸻
Factors Affecting Plant Growth
1. Light
2. Water
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Temperature
5. Soil nutrients
6. Oxygen
7. Soil pH
8. Space
9. Pollinators
10. Disease and pests
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