The Ultimate Guide to SAT Grammar Sixth Edition Study Notes

Introduction to the Digital SAT Grammar

This guide is designed to prepare students for the full range of concepts tested on the digital SAT®. Rather than simply providing rules, it demonstrates how concepts are tested from various angles and in combination with other principles. The chapters are organized by frequency, starting with the most commonly tested items. Part I and Part II cover the principles that make up the vast majority of Writing questions.

Time Management and Efficiency

The digital SAT provides more time per question ( $1$ minute and $11$ seconds) compared to the paper version (under $50$ seconds). However, efficiency remains key. If a student is comfortable with the rules, some Writing questions can be answered in seconds, allowing more time for complex Reading questions. Questions do not need to be answered in order; it is often beneficial to answer all Writing questions first to maintain focus for Reading sections.

The Adaptive Nature of the Test

Because the digital SAT is adaptive, it is crucial to maximize the score in the first section. Missing "easy points" can affect the difficulty and potential score of the subsequent module.

SAT Writing Cheat Sheet

Read the full passage, not just the text near the blank, and plug the answer back in to verify.
For Transitions, determine the relationship (Continue, Cause-and-Effect, Contradict) before looking at the choices.
Conjunctive Adverbs (e.g., however, therefore): At the start of a sentence, they follow a period, semicolon, colon, or dash. In the middle, they are surrounded by commas.
Student Notes: Identify the key word/phrase in the prompt (what the student wants to emphasize) and find the answer that rewords it. Ignore irrelevant bullet points.
Transitions in the middle/end of a sentence relate to the previous sentence.
Period = Semicolon = Comma + and/but.
Comma + it, this, s/he, they usually creates a comma splice, which is wrong.
Check options with a period or colon first for joining/separating sentences.
Colon = Single Dash: Used for an explanation or list. A full sentence is required before the mark, but not after.
2 Commas = 2 Dashes = 2 Parentheses: These mark Non-Essential Clauses. If crossed out, the sentence must still make sense. Never mix types (e.g., a comma with a dash).
Verb Agreement: Singular verbs end in $-s$ ; plural verbs do not. The noun nearest the verb may not be the actual subject.
Agreement vs. Tense: If choices include both singular and plural forms, focus on agreement first.
Verb Parallelism: Keep tense consistent with surrounding verbs unless there is a clear reason to change.
Pronoun Agreement: Singular nouns = it (things); plural = they.
Dangling Modifiers: A descriptive phrase set off by a comma must be followed immediately by the noun it describes.

Transitions: Logical Connections

Transition questions make up approximately $15-20 \%$ of the test ( $8$ to $10$ items). Most questions provide four grammatically acceptable options, requiring the student to identify the most logical link.

The Construction Hierarchy

Continuers: Indicate similar ideas.
- Add Information: Also, And, Furthermore, In addition, Moreover.
- Emphasize: In fact, Indeed.
- Compare: Likewise, Similarly.
- Give Example: For example, For instance, Specifically.
- Define/Clarify: Effectively, Essentially, In other words, That is.
Cause-and-Effect: Indicate one action results from another.
- Accordingly, As a result, As such, Because, Consequently, For, Hence, Since, So, Thus, Therefore, To this end.
Contradictors: Indicate different or opposing ideas.
- Alternately, Alternatively, Although, But, Conversely, Despite, Even so, Even though, However, In any case, In contrast, Instead, Nevertheless, Nonetheless, On the contrary, On the other hand, Otherwise, Rather, Regardless, Still, Whereas, While, Yet.

Placement Variations

Beginning of Sentence: Therefore, tropical mammals have few fat reserves.
Middle of Sentence: Tropical mammals, therefore, have few fat reserves. (Requires commas on both sides).
End of Sentence: Tropical mammals have few fat reserves, however. (Typically for contradictors).

Strategic Shortcuts

If two answers are exact synonyms (e.g., consequently and therefore), both can often be eliminated as there is only one correct answer.
Still vs. However: While often interchangeable, still specifically means "despite this," whereas however is a general contrast.

Specific Focus: Student Notes

These questions provide bullet-pointed notes and ask which choice best achieves a specific goal (e.g., "emphasize a similarity").

Common Focus Types

Comparisons/Contrasts: Look for words like like, unlike, while, whereas.
Familiar vs. Unfamiliar Audience:
- Familiar: Focuses on specific findings or impacts without repeating basic definitions.
- Unfamiliar: Includes background information (full names, dates, basic descriptions of work). These answers are usually longer.
Goals/Methodology: Look for answers that explicitly state what researchers wanted to do or how they did it.

Parts of Speech

1. Verbs

Indicate actions or states of being. The "to" form is the infinitive (e.g., to study).

To Be (Present): Singular (is), Plural (are).
To Be (Past): Singular (was), Plural (were).
To Have (Present): Singular (has), Plural (have).
To Have (Past): Had.

2. Nouns and Pronouns

Nouns: People, places, objects, ideas. Abstract nouns often end in -ment, -tion, -tude.
Pronouns: Replace nouns.
- Group Pronouns: Some, several, few, many, others.
- Relative Pronouns: Who, whom, which, that, where.

3. Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Adverbs

Prepositions: Location/time words (under, during, between). Always followed by a noun.
Conjunctions: Join clauses (but, because, although).
Conjunctive Adverbs: Transitions (however, therefore, thus). They have no grammatical effect on sentence completeness when added to a full sentence.

Sentences and Fragments

Every sentence needs a Subject and a Conjugated Verb.

Common Fragment Traps

Relative Clauses: A statement starting with which, who, whose, or where is not a sentence (unless it's a question).
-ing Words: Being and other gerunds/participles are NOT verbs.
- Fragment: The tomato being grown.
- Sentence: The tomato is grown.
Prepositional Phrases: In the greenhouse cannot stand alone.
Dependent Clauses: Started by subordinating conjunctions (Because, Although, If). They must be joined to an independent clause.

Group Pronoun Distinctions

Pronoun + of them = Independent Clause (Sentence).
- Many of them are grown in greenhouses.
Pronoun + of which/whom = Dependent Clause (Fragment).
- Many of which are grown in greenhouses.

Joining and Separating Sentences

1. Period, Semicolon, and Comma + FANBOYS

These are used to separate two independent clauses.

FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
A comma cannot separate two sentences alone (Comma Splice).
A FANBOYS conjunction should not be used immediately after a period or semicolon.

2. Colon vs. Semicolon

Semicolon: Separates two related independent clauses.
Colon: Separates two independent clauses only if the second defines/explains the first. It can also introduce a list/fragment.

3. Dashes

Single Dash: Functions like a colon, used for emphasis or explanation.
Double Dash: Functions like parentheses to set off non-essential info.

Non-Essential vs. Essential Clauses

Non-Essential

Can be removed without changing the sentence structure. Must be set off by Two Commas, Two Dashes, or Two Parentheses.

If a sentence starts with a parenthesis, it must end with a parenthesis, not a comma.
Appositives: Non-essential nouns that rename/describe the subject (e.g., The tomato, a popular salad ingredient, is a fruit).

Essential

Required for the sentence to make sense. No commas should be used.

That Clauses: That is always essential. Never put a comma before or after that.
Who Clauses: Can be essential (talking about a specific subset: People who exercise live longer) or non-essential (talking about a general group: My father, who exercises, lives longer).

Names and Titles

Two Commas: Implies the person/thing is the only one (The novel's author, Jamaica Kincaid, is famous).
No Commas: Implies one of many (Caribbean-American author Jamaica Kincaid is famous).

Subject-Verb Agreement

Core Rule

Singular subjects require singular verbs (end in $-s$ ). Plural subjects require plural verbs (no $-s$ ).

Disguising Disagreement

Prepositional Phrases: The patent [for the mechanical pencils] was granted. (Subject is patent, not pencils).
Inverted Syntax: Among the finds were earthenware knobs. (Subject is knobs, find is among).
Compound Subjects: Two nouns joined by and are always plural.
There is/There are: Agreement is with the noun following the verb.
Gerunds as Subjects: Always singular (Playing parlor games was popular).
Collective Nouns: Team, jury, committee are singular in American English.
Indefinite Pronouns:
- Singular: Each, every, neither, either, one.
- Plural: Several, few, both, many, others.
- Variable: Some, more, most, all, none (Depends on the noun in the prepositional phrase).

Verb Tense

Rules of Consistency

Verbs must remain parallel with surrounding context unless a timeframe shift is explicitly indicated.

Specific Tenses

Present Perfect: Has/Have + Past Participle (has studied). Indicates action started in the past and continues to now. Look for since or for.
Simple Past: Finished action (studies). Look for dates.
Past Perfect: Had + Past Participle. Used for the "earlier" of two past actions. Look for By the time.
Conditional: Would + Verb. Used for hypothetical scenarios or future actions from a past perspective.

Pronoun Agreement and Case

Agreement

It/Its: Singular things.
They/Their: Plural things.
One vs. You vs. We: Must remain consistent within a passage.

Case and Type

Who vs. Whom: Who before a verb; Whom after a preposition (for whom, with whom).
Whose: Possessive for both people and things.
Where: Only for physical locations.
Whereby: Means "by which"; used for processes/methods.
Preposition + Which: Can replace where or when (the year in which).

Apostrophes

Nouns

Singular Possessive: Student's ( $-'s$ ).
Plural Possessive: Students' ( $-s'$ ).
Irregular Plural Possessive: Children's ( $-'s$ ).

Pronouns

It's = it is / it has.
Its = possessive.
Their = possessive; They're = they are; There = place.
Whose = possessive; Who's = who is.

Modification

1. Dangling Modifiers

An introductory phrase must be followed by the noun it describes.

Incorrect: Famed for her performances, her costume was made of bananas. (The costume wasn't famed, she was).
Correct: Famed for her performances, she wore a costume made of bananas.

2. Misplaced Modifiers

Modifiers must be as close as possible to what they modify. Clauses with which must follow the noun they describe.

Parallel Structure

Items in a list or on either side of a conjunction must have the same grammatical form.

Lists: Running, jumping, and swimming (all -ing).
Conjunctions: Financial constraints and increased marketing (noun and noun).

Appendix: Additional Concepts

Word Pairs

As … as (as tall as).
Not only … but (also).
Either … or / Neither … nor.
More/Less … than.

Faulty Comparisons

Compare things to things, not things to people.

Incorrect: The tail of a dog is longer than a cat.
Correct: The tail of a dog is longer than that of a cat (where that of = the tail of).

Selection: Quantifiable vs. Non-Quantifiable

Plural (Countable): Fewer, Many (Fewer apples).
Singular (Uncountable): Less, Much (Less water).

Question Marks

Direct: Is this real?
Indirect: They wondered whether it was real. (Ends in a period).

About the Author

Erica L. Meltzer is a Wellesley College graduate and professional tutor based in New York City. She is the author of numerous test-prep guides including The Critical Reader and The Ultimate Guide to SAT Grammar, having sold over $200,000$ copies worldwide since her first publication in $2011$ .