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1. Concentration Terms A. Molarity (M) Definition: Number of moles of solute present in 1 litre of solution. Formula: Where: � = Mass of solute (g) � = Molar mass of solute � = Volume of solution (mL) Important: Molarity changes with temperature because volume changes. B. Molality (m) Definition: Number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent. Formula: Where: � = Mass of solvent (g) Important: Molality is independent of temperature. ⭐ Frequently asked theory question. C. Mole Fraction (x) Key Relation: 2. Solubility & Vapour Pressure A. Henry's Law Statement: The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to its pressure. Where: � = Solubility � = Henry's constant � = Pressure B. Raoult's Law For a solution containing two volatile liquids: Where: �, � = Vapour pressures of pure liquids �, � = Mole fractions C. Ideal vs Non-Ideal Solutions Ideal Solution Non-Ideal Solution Follows Raoult's law completely Deviates from Raoult's law ΔV = 0 ΔV ≠ 0 ΔH = 0 ΔH ≠ 0 Example: Benzene + Toluene Shows positive/negative deviation 3. Colligative Properties Definition Properties that depend only on the number of solute particles, not on their nature. A. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure (RLVP) For dilute solutions: Where: � = Vapour pressure of pure solvent � = Vapour pressure of solution B. Elevation of Boiling Point Where: � = Ebullioscopic constant C. Depression of Freezing Point Where: � = Cryoscopic constant D. Osmotic Pressure Where: � = Molarity � = 0.0821 L atm K⁻¹ mol⁻¹ � = Temperature in Kelvin Expanded form: 4. Van't Hoff Factor (i) ★ Most Important When solute particles dissociate or associate, the number of particles changes. Formula Non-Electrolytes Do not dissociate. Examples: Urea Glucose Sucrose Strong Electrolytes NaCl MgCl₂ Al₂(SO₄)₃ Degree of Dissociation (α) Where: � = Total ions formed

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