Results for "the matrix"

THE MATRIX ASSEMBLY

Year 11 English - The Matrix

Introduction to Tissues A. Histology=the study of tissues. B. Although studying tissues can be accomplished using a light microscope, studying cell parts often requires an electron microscope and the study of atoms and molecules can only be examined through special imaging techniques and experimental procedures. Types of Tissues A. Despite the fact the body is composed of trillions of cells, there are only about 200 different cell types. These cells in turn produce only four principle tissue types: 1. Epithelial tissues=covers exposed surfaces; lines internal passageways; and produces glandular secretions. 2. Connective tissues=fills internal spaces; provides structural support, and stores energy 3. Muscle tissues=contracts to produce active movements 4. Nervous tissue=conducts electrical impulses; detects, interprets, and responds to stimuli B. Relative contribution of the four tissue types to the overall weight of the adult body. C. Embryonic origins: There are three types of embryonic tissues from which all adult tissues are derived. a. Endoderm=gives rise to the functional linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts as well as to the associated accessory glands and organs (i.e. liver, stomach, pancreas, etc.) b. Mesoderm= gives rise to the components of the skeletal, muscular, and circulatory systems c. Ectoderm= gives rise to the epidermis of skin and all of the components of the nervous system D. Tissue Membranes 1. Mucous Membranes=composed of epithelial tissues. These membranes line body cavities that open to the exterior environment such as those of the digestive tract, respiratory tract, or urogenital tract. In all cases, these are "wet" or moist membranes because of the secretion of mucous. The moisture helps reduce friction and in many cases, facilitates absorption or secretion activities. 2. Serous Membranes=consists of a mesothelium supported by areolar tissue. These are never exposed or connected to the exterior. Serous membranes secrete transudate, or serous fluid. There are three serous membranes that line the ventral body cavity: a. Pleura=lines the chest cavity and surrounds the lungs. b. Pericardium=lines the pericardial cavity and surrounds the heart c. Peritoneum=lines the peritoneal cavity and lines the surfaces of the visceral organs 3. Cutaneous Membranes=made of stratified squamous and areolar tissue reinforced by dense irregular connective tissue. In contrast to mucous and serous membranes, cutaneous membranes are dry, relatively thick, and waterproof. 4. Synovial Membranes=line mobile joint cavities but do not cover the opposing joint surfaces. Secretes synovial fluid. Although the covering of the synovial membrane is often called an epithelium, it differs from true epithelia in four respects: it develops within a connective tissue, no basal lamina is present, gaps of up to 1 mm may separate adjacent cells, and the synovial fluid and capillaries in the underlying connective tissue are continuously exchanging fluid and solutes. Epithelial Tissues A. Functions of Epithelial Tissues 1. Epithelia provide physical protection. Epithelial tissues protect exposed and internal surfaces from abrasion, dehydration, and destruction by chemical or biological agents. 2. Epithelia control permeability. Any substance that enters or leaves the body has to cross an epithelial tissue. Some epithelia are relatively impermeable, whereas others are permeable to compounds as large as proteins. Most are capable of selective absorption or secretion. The epithelial barrier can be regulated and modified in response to various stimuli. For example, a callus forms on your hands when you do rough work for an extended period of time. 3. Epithelia provide sensation. Sensory nerves extensively innervate most epithelia. Specialize epithelial cells can detect changes in the environment and convey information about such changes to the nervous system. 4. Epithelial cells that produce secretions are called glands. Individual gland cells are often scattered among other cell types in an epithelium that may have many other functions. B. Location of Epithelial Tissues 1. Epithelia=forms sheets or layers of cells that line the body tubes, cavities, or coverings of the body surfaces. 2. Glands=formed of epithelial cells with secretory functions. Two types of glands are found in the human body: a. Endocrine glands=secrete hormones (or hormonal precursors) into the interstitial fluid or bloodstream. These glands are ductless. b. Exocrine glands=secretes non-hormonal substances (milk, wax, enzymes, oil, acids, etc.) onto external surfaces or internal passageways (ducts) that connect to the exterior. C. Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues 1. Polarity=epithelial cells possess two structurally and functionally different surfaces: a. Apical surface=free edge which faces the exterior of the body or the lumen of an internal space. b. Basal surface=attached surface which anchors the cells to adjacent tissues. 2. Supported by a basal lamina=also known as the basement membrane, is a complex structure produced by the basal surface of the epithelial cells and the underlying connective tissue. The underlying connective tissue is composed of two things: 3. Cellularity=epithelial cells are extensively interconnected so that they create an effective barrier that behaves as if it were a single cell. a. Occluding junctions=form a barrier that isolates the basolateral surfaces and deeper tissues from the contents of the lumen. At an occluding junction, the attachment is so tight that it prevents the passage of water and solutes between the cells. b. Adhesion belt=locks together the terminal webs of neighboring cells, strengthening the apical region and preventing distortion and leakage at the occluding junctions. It forms a continuous band that encircles cells and binds them together. c. Gap junctions=permits chemical communication that coordinates the activities of adjacent cells. At a gap junction, two cells are held together by interlocking junctional proteins called connexons which serve as channels that form a narrow passageway to let small molecules and ions to pass from cell to cell. d. Desmosomes=provides firm attachment between neighboring cells by interlocking their cytoskeletons. At a desmosome, the opposing plasma membranes are very strong and resist stretching and twisting. Hemidesmosomes attach the basal surface to the basement membrane. e. CAM=cell adhesion molecules; present in the adhesion belt and desmosomes; transmembrane proteins that bind to each other and to extracellular materials. 4. Avascular=epithelial tissues lack blood vessels; all nutrient and waste exchange occurs as a result of diffusion and osmosis from underlying tissues. 5. Highly innervated=epithelial tissues are supplied with many nerve endings 6. Regenerate rapidly=although the exact rate varies from one type of epithelia to another, most epithelial tissues regenerate within days (rather than weeks or years). D. Naming Epithelial Tissues 1. Almost all epithelial tissues possess a two part name where the first part of their name indicates their arrangement (number of layers) while the second part of their name indicates the shape of the cells. 2. Arrangement of epithelial tissues a. Simple=only one layer thick b. Stratified=more than one layer thick c. Pseudostratified= “false layers”; it looks like more than one layer but in fact its only one layer thick 3. Shape of epithelial cells a. Squamous=thin, flat, and somewhat irregular in shape. From the surface, they look like fried eggs lay side by side. In a sectional view, they look like a pancake with a pat of butter (indicating the nucleus). b. Cuboidal=are about as wide as they are tall; resemble hexagonal boxes with the spherical nucleus located in the center of each cell. c. Columnar=are taller than they are wide; resemble rectangles with the elongated nuclei tend to crowd into a narrow band close to the basal lamina. E. Diversity of Epithelial Tissues 1. Simple squamous epithelium a. Description: single layer of flattened cells with a disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm. b. Function: allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important. Also secretes lubricant. c. Locations: Kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, capillaries, linings of heart and lymphatic system. 2. Stratified squamous epithelium a. Description: thick layers of flattened cells; often keratinized layer and a mitotic layer. b. Function: protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion c. Location: non-keratinized type lines the mouth and vagina; keratinized type forms the epidermis of skin. 3. Simple cuboidal epithelium a. Description: single layer of cube-like cells with large spherical centrally located nuclei. b. Function: secretion and absorption c. Locations: Kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of glands, ovary surface 4. Stratified cuboidal epithelium a. Relatively rare in the human body. b. Most common along the ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and other exocrine glands. c. DO NOT NEED TO KNOW FOR THE LAB PRACTICAL!! 5. Simple columnar epithelium a. Description: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; may contain goblet cells that produce mucus; may contain microvilli. b. Function: absorption; secretion of mucus and enzymes; cilia propel substances. c. Location: non-ciliated type lines digestive tract, gallbladder, and ducts from glands; ciliated type lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus. 6. Stratified columnar epithelium a. Relatively rare in the human body. b. Most often found lining large ducts such as those of the salivary glands and pancreas. c. DO NOT NEED TO KNOW FOR THE LAB PRACTICAL!! 7. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium a. Description: single layer of cells of differing heights so that nuclei are a differing levels; may contain goblet cells and bear cilia. b. Function: secretion, propulsion by ciliary action. c. Location: non-ciliated type lines male reproductive ducts; ciliated type lines much of respiratory tract. 8. Transitional epithelium a. Description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal. Basal cells are cuboidal or columnar; surface cells are dome shaped. b. Function: stretches readily and permits distension. c. Location: Lines uterus, bladder, and urethra F. Glandular Epithelia are Specialized for Secretion 1. Endocrine glands= “ductless” glands that produce hormones. Secrete directly into interstitial fluids or bloodstream. Examples: pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, etc. 2. Exocrine glands=glands possessing ducts. Exocrine glands secret their substance either on the body surfaces or within ducts. They general demonstrates one of two different modes secretion: a. Merocrine=secrete products from secretory vesicles by exocytosis. Most common type. Example: salivary glands of the oral cavity b. Holocrine=accumulate products until the cell ruptures. Destroys the cell and must be replaced by cell division. Example: sebaceous glands of the skin c. Apocrine=products accumulate within the cells then the apex of the cell pinches off packets that contain the secretion. Example: mammary gland of the breast 3. Exocrine glands are unicellular or multicellular. a. Unicellular=goblet cells that produce mucin which mixes with water to form mucus. b. Multicellular=two structural classes: i. Simple=a single duct that does not branch on its way to the secretory cells (examples: gastric glands, sebaceous glands) ii. Compound= duct divides one or more times on its way to the secretory cells (examples: duodenal glands, mammary glands and salivary glands) Connective Tissues: Supports and Protects A. Location of Connective Tissues 1. Most abundant tissue in the body. 2. Never exposed to the outside environment. B. Characteristics of Connective Tissues 1. All types of connective tissue originate from mesenchyme. 2. Connective tissues vary widely in appearance and function but all forms share three basic components: a. Specialized cells=the cells present in each type of connective tissue helps to distinguish the various types from one another. A few of the cells are listed here: i. Fibroblast cells=produce connective tissue proper ii. Chondrocytes=produce cartilage iii. Osteocytes=produce bone iv. Hemocytoblast cells=produce blood b. Extracellular proteins fibers=three primary fibers are produced in connective tissues i. Elastic fibers=slender, straight, and very stretchy. They recoil to their original length after stretching or distortion. ii. Collagen fibers=thick, straight or wavy, and often forms bundles. They are very strong and resist stretching. iii. Reticular fibers=strong fibers that form a branching network or scaffolding c. Ground substance=material that fills the space between cells and surrounds the extracellular fibers. In some connective tissues the ground substance is gel-like while in others it is liquid based and in others it is rigid or calcified. Ground substance and extracellular fibers make up the matrix of connective tissues. 3. Many types of connective tissue are highly vascular and contain sensory receptors that detect pain, pressure, temperature, and other stimuli. C. Functions of Connective Tissues 1. Establish a structural framework for the body. 2. Transport fluids and dissolved materials. 3. Protect delicate organs. 4. Support, surround, and interconnect other types of tissue. 5. Store energy reserves, especially in the form of triglycerides. 6. Defend the body from invading microorganisms. D. Diversity of Connective Tissues 1. Connective Tissue Proper=includes connective tissues with many types of cells and extracellular fibers in a gel-like ground substance. a. Loose Connective Tissues – fibers created a loose, open framework i. Areolar tissue=most common form of connective tissue proper in adults. It is the general packing material in the body. Attaches skin to underlying body parts and is sometimes called the superficial fascia. All of the cell types found in other forms of connective tissue proper can be found in areolar. ii. Adipose tissue=found deep to the skin, especially at the flanks, buttocks, and breasts. It also forms a layer that provides padding within the orbit of the eyes, in the abdominopelvic cavity, and around the kidneys. The distinction between areolar tissue and adipose is the larger number of adipocytes (fat cells). iii. Reticular tissue=found in the liver, kidney, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow, where it forms a tough, flexible network that provides support and resists distortion. In reticular tissue, reticular fibers create a complex supporting network known as a stroma. Fixed macrophages and fibroblasts are present but these cells are seldom visible. DO NOT NEED TO KNOW FOR THE LAB PRACTICAL!! b. Dense Connective Tissues – fibers are densely packed together i. Dense regular=all collagen fibers are oriented parallel to each other providing strength along the axis of the collagen fibers. Found in cords (such as tendons) or sheets (ligaments). Tendons connect muscle to bones. Ligaments connect bones to bones. ii. Dense irregular=collagen fibers are non-parallel forming an interwoven network. These tissues provide strength in many directions and are particularly important in areas subjected to stress from many directions such as the dermis of the skin. iii. Elastic=when elastic fibers outnumber collagen fibers, the tissue has a springy, resilient nature that allows it to tolerate cycles of extension and recoil. This elastic tissue is bound between the vertebrae of the spinal column and the erectile tissues of the penis. DO NOT NEED TO KNOW FOR THE LAB PRACTICAL!! 2. Fluid Connective Tissues=have distinctive populations of cells suspended in a watery matrix that contains dissolved proteins. NOT ON LAB PRACTICAL! a. Blood – flows within the cardiovascular system 3. Supporting Connective Tissues=differ from connective tissue proper in have a less diverse cell population and a matrix containing much more densely packed fibers. Supporting connective tissues protect soft tissues and support the weight of part or all of the body. a. Cartilage – solid, rubbery matrix containing chondrocytes. All cartilage is surrounded by a membrane of connective tissue called the perichondrium. i. Hyaline cartilage=found connecting the ribs to the sternum, covering the articular surfaces of long bones, supporting the respiratory passageways such as the trachea, and forming the tip of the nose and part of the nasal septum. Has an amorphous matrix with few visible fibers. It provides stiff but somewhat flexible support and reduces friction between bony surfaces. ii. Elastic cartilage=found in the ear and epiglottis. Has many more elastic fibers within the matrix and is therefore more flexible. iii. Fibrous cartilage=found within the intervertebral discs, the meniscus of the knee, and pubic symphysis. Has many more collagen fibers within its matrix and is therefore very strong. b. Bone – solid, crystalline matrix containing osteocytes. All bone is surrounded by a membrane of connective tissue called the periosteum. NOT ON LAB PRACTICAL! c. Comparison of cartilage and bone. Muscle Tissue in Motion (discussed in detail in Chapter 10-11) NOT ON LAB PRACTICAL! A. Highly vascularized muscular tissue is comprised of elongated cells (called fibers) containing myofilaments (actin and myosin proteins). 
 B

MCC The Matrix Fall 2024 Exam 2

The Matrix in each Connective Tissue

MCC The Matrix Fall 2024 Exam 1

1.4 the matrix equation

The Matrix of a Linear Transformation 1.9

The Matrix Equation 1.4

What is the cell type that is responsible for maintaining bone once it has been formed? Osteocytes What is the primary function of osteoblasts? To build bone What do ligaments attach? Bone to bone What is osteomyelitis? Bone inflammation that results from bacterial infection Which bone cells combine hydroxyapatite and collagen to form extracellular bone matrix? Osteoblasts Name two functions of the skeletal system. Support Protection If a person gets hit in the back of the head, then which bone will suffer? Occipital bone Where is the lambdoidal suture located? Parietal and occipital bones What do we call disease in adults characterized by softening of bones? Osteomalacia Your patient is admitted due to stenosis of the foramen magnum what structure is directly affected by this condition? Spinal cord What is primary mineral in bone? Calcium What are the basic units in compact bone tissue? Osteon or haversian system Which bone cell type is responsible type for breaking down bone? Osteoclast Most common bone disease is osteoporosis. what is the most common consequence? Fractures What chemical synthesized or ingested is necessary for calcium absorption through the intestines. Vitamin D What is the purpose of the proteoglycan molecules in the matrix of cartilage? Gives cartilage resilient nature because it holds water. What is the disease in children characterized by soft bone and swollen bones? Rickets What’s a band of connective tissue that connects muscle to the bone? Tendon What is the other name for shoulder blade? Scapula Which type of bone cell have ruffled borders and secrete acids? Osteoclasts Which type of bone cells lie in the lacunae? Osteocytes What is a passageway that connects neighboring osteocytes in osteon? Canaliculi What are the blood vessels that carry blood in the medulla cavity in the periosteum and run perpendicular to the bone? Volkman’s canals What is the carrying out surface of the bone called? Periosteum What type of lamellae are found in osteons? Concentric lamellae What type of bone has trabeculae be present in? Spongy or cancellous bone What is the function of red bone marrow? Blood cell production What is the cite of long terminal growth in long bones? Epiphyseal plates What do we call end of long bone? Epiphysis What does normal bone growth require adequate amounts in the diet? Calcium, phosphate, and vitamin d What is the sequence of events that produces growth in epiphyseal growth? Bone remodeling Where is the sagittal suture found? Between two parietal bones What type of joints is found in the appendicular skeleton? Synovial joints The cubital joint or the elbow is an example of what type of joint? Hinge joint. The knee joint is an example of what type of joint? Complex ellipsoid Questions asking about abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, etc. What results from the failure of the maxillary bones that failed to fuse Cleft palate Which portion of coxal bone does a person sit on? Ischial tuberosity Common name for sternum Breastbone The lateral malleolus is part of which bone Fibula Your patient is an avid runner and they complain about pain on their greater trochanter region. Where is it located? Femur What is the coxal bone known as? Hip bone. Which cranial bone forms eyebrow ridges Frontal What is an exaggerated region of the lumbar region? Lordosis What is an abnormal of lateral curvature of spine? Scoliosis What is the 1st cervical vertebrae? Atlas If your patient presented with a tumor in the posterior orbit what would be affected? Vision Patient that presents with a fractured mandible has a broken what? Lower jaw If new chondrocytes and new matrix is added on outside of tissue, what type of growth is it? Appositional growth Your patient has been diagnosed with a fracture of the dens. Which bone is affected? The axis Which fibers are collagen fibers that connect ligaments and tendons throughout the periosteum of the bone? Sharpey’s fibers What is the bone fracture in which the two bone sections do not separate? Hairline fracture Some flat and irregular bones of the skull have air filled spaces. What are these called? Sinus The flat bones of the skull develop from what type of formation. Intramembranous ossification Bowing your head is an example of what type of movement. Flexion What do we call the articulation of the teeth in the upper and lower jaws. Gomphosis What substance is responsible for slippery synovial fluid? Hyaluronic acid Which ligament is found at the head of the femur? The ligamentum teres Rotating the forearm so that the palm faces posterior? Pronation What’s the most common type of arthritis? Osteoarthritis Which ligaments help keep the head erect? Ligamentum nuchae What’s the condition in which there is failure for vertebral lamellae to fuse? Spina bifida In what way are the thumb and big toe similar? Two phalanges only proximal and distal If your patient present with cerebral spinal fluid draining from ear where is there probably fracture located Temporal What results from damage to a nucleus fibrosus and a release of nucleus pulposus? Herniated discs What do we call the connective tissue sheath of cartilage? Perichondrium What is weight bearing ability of bone matrix due to the presence of Hydroxyapatite crystals In osteogenesis imperfecta the cause would be abnormally formed what Collagen The proportion of what determines the strength of the bone. Collagen to hydroxyapatite What type of bone is organized into thin sheets of tissue? Compact lamellar bones Which kind of bone contains interconnected plates called trabeculae Spongy bone What is the function of yellow bone marrow? Store adipose tissue or fat. What is proper event sequence in bone repair? Hematoma formation Callous formation Callus Ossification Bone remodeling What happens when bones adjust to stress or when bones grow or fractures heal Bone-remodeling You have a young boy as a patient and exhibited advanced development of sexual characteristics and rapid growth. What caused it. Testosterone secretion If an x-ray shows a black area of the epiphyseal plate what has happened Not completely calcified. What do we call the location where ossification begins in intramembranous ossification? Primary centers of ossification In which type of articulation are bones held together by ligaments called interosseous membranes Syndesmosis What is the function of bursa? Minimizes friction and acts as cushion. What provides smooth surface where bones meet? Articular or hyaline cartilage What do we call an abnormal forced extension beyond normal range of movement? Hyperextension Bones and their function Your patient is diagnosed with pituitary tumor. Where is the tumor located? Cella Turcica bone What do we call the junction of two pubic bones? Pubic symphysis What do we call the Olecranon process? Elbow If your patient was rear ended the trauma is what Whiplash Common is the name for patella The kneecap

1.3 Macro Intro Breaking a bond = hydrolysis Build/make a bond = remove water, dehydration synthesis 1.4 Macros Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA Made from nucleotides A, T, C, G, U Proteins Amino acids Polypeptide To make it into a protein you need to fold and modify Carbs Monosaccharides Ex. glucose Polysaccharides Ex. starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin Lipids nonpolar Ex. phospholipids Saturated (butter) vs unsaturated (oil) 1.5 Macros structure + function Uses covalent bonds between nucleotides Main structure want it to be covalent bond so its strong Bases use hydrogen bonds DNA is antiparallel, equally spaced read in opposite directions Protein Primary - Amino acids Secondary - Pleats and coils (hydrogen bonding) Tertiary - Interactions between the R-groups (unique shapes) Quaternary - 2 or more chains (any bond) Carbs Chains of sugars using covalent bonds 1.6 Nucleic Acids DNA Deoxyribose sugar T Double stranded RNA Ribose sugar U Single stranded Common Both use nucleotides A, G, C U2 Cells Organelles Ribosomes = protein synthesis Found on rough ER or free Show common ancestry Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough = ribosomes Smooth = makes lipids, detox Golgi complex Protein trafficking Packaging and transport of proteins mitochondria Site of cellular respiration, ATP production Double membrane Own DNA circular DNA Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis Own circular DNA Lysosome Hydrolytic enzymes Apoptosis Vacuole Large in plants Small in animal cells 2.3 Cell Size Small cells Inc surface area to volume ratio More efficient Better for transportation, elimination of waste, heat, exchanges, etc 2.4 Plasma Membrane Small and nonpolar can pass through easily (oxygen and carbon dioxide) 2.5 Membrane Permeability Selectively permeable Transport proteins needed for larger polar molecules Cell wall - plants, fungi, and prokaryotes Provides extra support and protection 2.6 Transport Passive transport (high to low) Does Not require any energy Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion (uses proteins) Active transport (low to high) Require energy Exocytosis Moving things in or out Endocytosis 2.7 Facilitated diffusion Uses integral proteins Ex. aquaporins, ion channels, neurons Proteins also used for active transport 3.6 Cellular Respiration Glycolysis Within the cytoplasm Evidence of common ancestry because all organisms go through glycolysis Glucose to 2 pyruvates Energy investment phase and energy payoff phase Get pyruvate, ATP, and NADH Fermentation (ONLY IF NO OXYGEN) To reset everything Takes NADH and turns it back to NAD+ to keep running glycolysis Grooming Phase Modify and turn it into Acetyl CoA Kreb Cycle With in the matrix Making electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) Inner mitochondrial membrane Where the electron transport chain takes place 3.7 Fitness Max offspring Variation can increase fitness Unit 4 Cell Communications 4.1 Signal Transduction Pathway Autocrine (signal yourself) Paracrine (next to you) Endocrine (far from you) 4.2 Signal Transduction Pathway intro Reception → transduction → response Reception: ligand attacks to the receptor The process by which a cell detects a signal in the environment. Ex. ligand binds to G protein which activates Transduction: phosphorylation cascade and amplifies signal The process of activating a series of proteins inside the cell from the cell membrane. Response: The change in behavior that occurs in the cell as a result of the signal. Second messenger - first is ligand, second messenger is for amplification (cAMP - each can have their own phosphorylation cascades) 4.3 STP Responses Turn gene off/on Apoptosis Cell growth start/stop 4.4 changes to STP Mutations (respond too much or too little to the signal molecule attacking) Chemical can release that can interfere with your STP resulting with death 4,5 Feedback Respond to changes (homeostasis) Negative (reverse change) Positive (increasing the change) 4.6 / 4.7 Cell Cycle/ Regulation G1 - growth G1 checkpoint (determine if you go to S phase or to G0 non dividing state) S - DNA replication G2 - organelle replication and growth G2 checkpoint - make sure the cell is ready for division M phase - Mitosis PMAT Prophase - nucleus disappears Metaphase - lined up at the equator Anaphase - replicated chromosomes are split Telophase - move to opposite ends M-phase checkpoint - checks to make sure division is correct Cytokinesis - final split into 2 Cyclin increases during S and peaks at M Cdk binds with cyclin to produce mpf Level of cyclins lets cell know where it’s supposed to be Tells your cell you are at your full maturity ready to produce Unit 5 Heredity 5.1 / 5.2 Meiosis Increases genetic variation Crossing over (Prophase 1) Reduction division haploid (half the amount of genetic information) Random fertilization Nondisjunction (meiosis 1 all 4 cells are irregular / meiosis 2 half the cells are irregular) Independent Assortment Increases genetic diversity 5.3 Mendelian Genetics A = dominant allele a = recessive allele Genotype - combination of letters (AA, Aa, aa) Phenotype = looks Law of Segregation - Aa → A / a Law of Independent Assortment (Aa Bb → AB, Ab, aB, ab) Sex Linked Located on a sex chromosome Usually X Sex linked recessive is more common in males because they only have one X Sex linked dominant both can inherit easily Incomplete dominance - blending Codominance - both alleles expressed 5.5 Environmental Effects Ex. weather, pH of soil 5.6 Chromosomal Inheritance Mutation → inherited Some have no effect, negative effect, neutral effect, 6.1 Gene Expression and Regulation 6.1 DNA Double stranded Deoxyribose T RNA Ribose Single stranded U 6.2 Replication (S-Phase) 5’ → 3’ Ligase - binds the new bases together Helicase - unwinds the DNA DNA poly - put down the new bases Primase - makes primer Topoisomerase - stops DNA from getting overwind Leading - able to all go in one go Lagging - many primers and okazaki fragments 6.3 Transcription and Processing Nucleus RNA poly makes primary transcript (pre mRNA) from DNA Template strand is the one the DNA is using to build Non template strand one not being used RNA processing Introns are removed Exons are put together Add cap and tail for protection Alternative splicing 6.4 Translation Ribosome Reverse Transcriptase retroviruses Ex. HIV RNA genomes use reverse transcriptase to make DNA from RNA 6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression Signal to unpack the gene Transcribed (transcription factors differ by cells and allows different gens to turn on) RNA editing Translation Polypeptide folding All need to go correctly or else the gene wont be expressed Acetylation of histones - adding acetyl group causes the DNA to be more loose making it easier to read Methylation of histones - adding methyl groups to the DNA causes it to be tighter and harder to read Enhancers - enhances transcription and causes it to occur more often Activators - dont bind to RNA poly it binds to the enhancer Depends of which genes and stage of development Epigenetics - one gene controls another gene Inducible Operon - usually off Repressor is bound to operon and lactose inactivates Repressible Operon - usually on Repressor is usually inactive, trp activates repressor 6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization Promoter region (TATA box) alerts RNA poly that its a promoter region and where to attach Negative regulation - blocks promoter so RNA poly cant attach small RNA - can turn certain genes off 6.7 Mutations Increase normal gene function Decrease normal gene function Can lead to new phenotypes Cancer can be due to overproduction of growth factors, hyperactive proteins (requires many mutations Can have positive, negative, or no effect Causes of mutation Exposures Random Errors in DNA replication Increase or decrease in chromosome number Prokaryotes Transformation - pick up random DNA Transduction - virus accidentally is filled with bacterial DNA Conjunction - mating bridge/sex pilus 6.8 Biotechnology Electrophoresis - separates DNA by charge and size PCR - artificial DNA replication, increases amount of DNA sample Transformation - you make the bacteria take up a gene you're interested in Unit 7 7.1 Natural Selection natural / selective pressures decide survival Reproductive fitness (max out your kids) 7.2 Natural Selection Acts on phenotypes which can affect genotype Preferring brown fur over white decreases white fur allele frequency Environmental changes → selective pressures 7.3 Artificial Selection Humans select (ex. Dogs, livestock, etc) Convergent evolution - not closely related but because of similar environments you look alike Divergent - had a recent common ancestor but you started becoming separate Niche partitioning - choosing separate niches so you dont have to compete with others 7.4 Population Genetics Mutation - variety and evolution Genetic drift - random event that alters the gene pool Bottleneck effect - an event causes a large part of the population to die off and the remaining left repopulate with a different gene pool Founder effect - the og are there but some leave/get separated 7.5 Hardy Weinburg Large population No natural selection Random mating No mutation No gene flow P+q = 1 p2 + 2pq +q2 = 1 (AA) + (Aa) + (aa) = 1 7.6 Evidence of Evolution Fossils DNA (molecular homologies) Anatomy Vestigial structure (things we dont need anymore) (evidence of common ancestry) Biogeography (species are found all around the world)(kangaroos, genetic code, glycolysis) 7.7 Common Ancestry All Eukaryotes Membrane bound organelles Linear DNA and chromosomes Genes with introns 7.8 Continuing Evolution Genomic changes over time Continuous changes in fossils Evolution of antibiotic resistance Disease evolution 7.9 Phylogeny / Cladistics Phylogeny = included time Cladograms = just traits Shared characters Derived characters Molecular (DNA, proteins, amino acids) are more accurate than characteristics Parsimony - the one with the fewer events on it, the frewer you have the more likely it is 7.10 Speciesation Pre-zygotic Mechanical - parts dont match Gametic - egg doesnt match Geographical - dont live in the same place Temporal - ready to mate at different times Behavioral - specific type of mating display is not there Post-zygotic Hybrid sterility - the hybrid made is healthy but they cannot have children (mule) Hybrid breakdowns - the hybirds are okay but after a generation or two they cannot produce anymore Hybrid inviability - hybrid is produced but cannot survive long enough to reproduce Sympatric New species arrises in the original location Gradualism - slow steady evolution Allopstric Separation leads to speciation Punctuated - long periods of evolution with no change then rapid change 7.11 Extinction Can be natural or human caused If something goes extinct it can open up opprotunities for other species 7.12 Variation Genetic diversity Diversity of the ecosystem = inc biodiversity Less likey to be 7.13 Origins of Life on Earth No oxygen on earth 4.6 billion No ozone layer Tons of UV radiation High ocean levels Vooacanic eruptions RNA was the first genetic material DNA is dependant of RNA in

The Matrix Exponential

inside the matrix

Hormones that influence osteoblasts and maintain the matrix

Chapter 3: Reality and Being