Results for "punnett square"

Genetics/Punnett Squares

Let’s break this down! I’ll give you a study guide covering asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction (in humans and plants), and Mendelian genetics — then I’ll create a test for you. ⸻ Study Guide for Asexual Reproduction, Sexual Reproduction, and Mendelian Genetics ⸻ I. Asexual Reproduction • Definition: Involves a single parent, producing offspring genetically identical to the parent (clones). • Types of Asexual Reproduction: • Binary Fission: Simple cell division (e.g., bacteria). • Budding: New organism grows from a bud on the parent (e.g., yeast, hydra). • Fragmentation/Regeneration: Organism splits, and each part grows into a new organism (e.g., starfish). • Vegetative Propagation: New plants grow from parts of the parent plant (e.g., runners in strawberries). • Parthenogenesis: Offspring develop from unfertilized eggs (e.g., some lizards, insects). • Pros and Cons: • Pros: Fast, no need for a mate, energy-efficient. • Cons: No genetic variation, susceptible to environmental changes. ⸻ II. Sexual Reproduction (Humans & Plants) Humans: • Process: • Gametes (sperm and egg) produced by meiosis. • Fertilization forms a zygote (diploid cell). • Male Reproductive System: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, urethra, penis. • Female Reproductive System: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina. • Hormonal Regulation: • Male: Testosterone (sperm production, secondary characteristics). • Female: Estrogen & progesterone (menstrual cycle, pregnancy). Plants: • Process: Alternation of generations (sporophyte & gametophyte stages). • Pollination: Transfer of pollen to stigma. • Fertilization: Sperm (from pollen) fuses with egg in ovule. • Structures: Stamen (male), carpel/pistil (female). • Seed & Fruit Development: Fertilized ovules become seeds; ovary becomes fruit. ⸻ III. Mendelian Genetics • Gregor Mendel’s Experiments: Pea plants, discovered inheritance patterns. • Key Concepts: • Genes & Alleles: Genes determine traits, alleles are gene variants. • Dominant vs. Recessive Alleles: Dominant alleles mask recessive ones. • Homozygous vs. Heterozygous: Same alleles (AA or aa) vs. different alleles (Aa). • Laws of Inheritance: • Law of Segregation: Allele pairs separate during gamete formation. • Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits sort independently. • Genetic Crosses: Punnett squares, monohybrid/dihybrid crosses. • Probability & Ratios: Phenotypic/genotypic ratios. • Non-Mendelian Inheritance: Incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, polygenic traits, sex-linked traits. ⸻ AP Biology Practice Test Total Questions: 30 (Multiple Choice) Section 1: Asexual Reproduction (6 questions) 1. Which form of asexual reproduction involves an organism splitting into two identical cells? a) Budding b) Fragmentation c) Binary fission d) Parthenogenesis 2. Which organism commonly reproduces through budding? a) Bacteria b) Starfish c) Hydra d) Fern 3. A disadvantage of asexual reproduction is: a) Slow reproduction rate b) High genetic diversity c) Vulnerability to environmental changes d) Requirement of a mate 4. Which plant structure is involved in vegetative propagation? a) Petal b) Stigma c) Runner d) Anther 5. Parthenogenesis involves: a) Fertilized eggs developing into offspring b) Unfertilized eggs developing into offspring c) Fusion of gametes d) Regeneration of lost body parts 6. What is the primary benefit of asexual reproduction in stable environments? a) Genetic variation b) Rapid population growth c) Evolutionary adaptability d) Reduced mutation rates ⸻ Section 2: Sexual Reproduction (8 questions) 7. In humans, fertilization typically occurs in the: a) Uterus b) Vagina c) Ovary d) Fallopian tube 8. The male gamete in plants is contained in the: a) Ovule b) Anther c) Pollen grain d) Stigma 9. Which hormone triggers ovulation? a) Testosterone b) Progesterone c) Luteinizing hormone (LH) d) Estrogen 10. The female gametophyte in flowering plants is the: a) Ovary b) Pollen tube c) Embryo sac d) Sepal 11. Which part of the male reproductive system produces sperm? a) Epididymis b) Vas deferens c) Testes d) Prostate gland 12. The process where pollen is transferred from anther to stigma is: a) Germination b) Pollination c) Fertilization d) Sporulation 13. What structure develops into a seed after fertilization in plants? a) Ovule b) Ovary c) Stamen d) Pistil 14. Which term describes the fusion of egg and sperm to form a zygote? a) Gametogenesis b) Meiosis c) Fertilization d) Pollination ⸻ Section 3: Mendelian Genetics (16 questions) 15. Who is considered the “Father of Genetics”? a) Charles Darwin b) Gregor Mendel c) Rosalind Franklin d) James Watson 16. The physical expression of a trait is called: a) Genotype b) Phenotype c) Allele d) Chromosome 17. An organism with the genotype Aa is: a) Homozygous dominant b) Homozygous recessive c) Heterozygous d) Diploid 18. A Punnett square shows: a) The process of DNA replication b) Possible genetic combinations of offspring c) Chromosome number in gametes d) Evolutionary relationships 19. The expected phenotypic ratio for a monohybrid cross is: a) 1:2:1 b) 9:3:3:1 c) 3:1 d) 4:0 20. Which of Mendel’s laws states that allele pairs separate during gamete formation? a) Law of Independent Assortment b) Law of Segregation c) Law of Dominance d) Law of Inheritance 21. Incomplete dominance results in: a) Blended traits b) Both traits expressed equally c) One trait completely masking another d) A 9:3:3:1 ratio 22. A cross between two heterozygous individuals (Aa x Aa) produces what genotypic ratio? a) 3:1 b) 1:2:1 c) 9:3:3:1 d) 2:2 23-30

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09.B BIO, HN Punnett Squares (PART B)

Cell and Structures Cell vs. Viruses • Cells: Simplest living structures capable of performing all life functions independently. • Viruses: Non-living entities requiring a host cell to replicate and survive. Microscopes • Light Microscope: Uses visible light, magnifies up to 1,000x; resolution limited by wavelength of light. • SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope): Creates detailed 3D images of surfaces; does not show internal structures. • TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope): Produces high-resolution images of internal cellular structures. Magnification and Resolution • Magnification: Enlarges an object’s appearance. • Resolution: Measures the clarity of an image by distinguishing two points as separate. Robert Hooke • Coined the term "cells" after observing cork under a microscope. • Published his findings in Micrographia (1665), advancing the study of cells. Cytology and Biochemistry • Cytology: The study of cell structure and function. • Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes and substances within organisms. Cell Fractionation • A laboratory technique to break apart cells and isolate organelles for detailed study. Size Limitations of Cells • Smaller cells have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio, which is essential for efficient exchange of materials. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes • Prokaryotes: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; simpler and smaller (e.g., bacteria). • Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; larger and more complex. Cell Structures and Functions • Nucleus: Stores genetic material (DNA). • Plasma Membrane: Protects the cell; regulates material exchange. • Cytosol: Fluid portion of the cytoplasm where cellular processes occur. • Microvilli: Increases surface area for absorption in some animal cells. • Cytoskeleton: ◦ Microfilaments (actin): Provides structural support. ◦ Microtubules: Involved in transport and motility. • Animal Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Desmosomes: Anchor cells together. ◦ Gap Junctions: Channels that allow communication between cells. ◦ Tight Junctions: Create a watertight seal between cells. • Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Nonliving material outside cells, providing structural and biochemical support. • Plant Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Plasmodesmata: Channels connecting cytoplasm between plant cells. Cellular Respiration Definition • Process of extracting energy from glucose to produce ATP, the cell's main energy currency. ATP • Made by the enzyme ATP synthase, powered by hydrogen ion (H⁺) movement across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Three Stages of Respiration 1 Glycolysis (Cytoplasm): ◦ Reactants: Glucose. ◦ Products: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), and NADH. 2 Krebs Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix): ◦ Reactant: Acetyl CoA. ◦ Products: CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, and 2 ATP. 3 Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (Inner Mitochondrial Membrane): ◦ Reactants: NADH and FADH₂ (electron carriers). ◦ Products: Water and ~32-34 ATP. Key Points • No oxygen = no Krebs cycle or ETC; only 2 ATP are produced via glycolysis. • Fermentation occurs in anaerobic conditions: ◦ Converts pyruvate into lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol (in yeast). Photosynthesis Overview • Process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy (sugars). • Formula: CO2+H2O→O2+G3PCO_2 + H_2O \rightarrow O_2 + G3PCO2​+H2​O→O2​+G3P. Key Concepts 1 Light Reactions (Thylakoid Membranes): ◦ Products: ATP and NADPH (used in the Calvin Cycle). ◦ Oxygen is produced by Photosystem II. 2 Calvin Cycle (Stroma): ◦ Uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into G3P (a sugar precursor). Photosystems • Photosystem II: Produces oxygen and ATP. • Photosystem I: Produces NADPH. Adaptations • C4 Pathway: Spatial separation of steps to avoid photorespiration. • CAM Pathway: Temporal separation, stomata open at night to reduce water loss. Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis • Division of a eukaryotic somatic (non-reproductive) cell into two identical diploid cells. • Phases: 1 Prophase: Chromosomes condense; spindle forms. 2 Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator. 3 Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate. 4 Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform. 5 Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm splits into two cells. Meiosis • Specialized cell division in germ cells (ovaries/testes) to produce gametes. • Key Features: ◦ Two divisions produce four genetically unique haploid cells. ◦ Crossing over occurs during Prophase I for genetic diversity. Binary Fission • A simple form of cell division in prokaryotes producing two identical cells. Genetics • Haploid: Single set of chromosomes (e.g., gametes). • Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes (e.g., somatic cells). • Punnett Squares and Pedigrees: Tools to predict genetic inheritance. Cell and Structures Cell vs. Viruses • Cells: Simplest living structures capable of performing all life functions independently. • Viruses: Non-living entities requiring a host cell to replicate and survive. Microscopes • Light Microscope: Uses visible light, magnifies up to 1,000x; resolution limited by wavelength of light. • SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope): Creates detailed 3D images of surfaces; does not show internal structures. • TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope): Produces high-resolution images of internal cellular structures. Magnification and Resolution • Magnification: Enlarges an object’s appearance. • Resolution: Measures the clarity of an image by distinguishing two points as separate. Robert Hooke • Coined the term "cells" after observing cork under a microscope. • Published his findings in Micrographia (1665), advancing the study of cells. Cytology and Biochemistry • Cytology: The study of cell structure and function. • Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes and substances within organisms. Cell Fractionation • A laboratory technique to break apart cells and isolate organelles for detailed study. Size Limitations of Cells • Smaller cells have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio, which is essential for efficient exchange of materials. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes • Prokaryotes: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; simpler and smaller (e.g., bacteria). • Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; larger and more complex. Cell Structures and Functions • Nucleus: Stores genetic material (DNA). • Plasma Membrane: Protects the cell; regulates material exchange. • Cytosol: Fluid portion of the cytoplasm where cellular processes occur. • Microvilli: Increases surface area for absorption in some animal cells. • Cytoskeleton: ◦ Microfilaments (actin): Provides structural support. ◦ Microtubules: Involved in transport and motility. • Animal Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Desmosomes: Anchor cells together. ◦ Gap Junctions: Channels that allow communication between cells. ◦ Tight Junctions: Create a watertight seal between cells. • Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Nonliving material outside cells, providing structural and biochemical support. • Plant Cell-Specific Structures: ◦ Plasmodesmata: Channels connecting cytoplasm between plant cells. Cellular Respiration Definition • Process of extracting energy from glucose to produce ATP, the cell's main energy currency. ATP • Made by the enzyme ATP synthase, powered by hydrogen ion (H⁺) movement across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Three Stages of Respiration 1 Glycolysis (Cytoplasm): ◦ Reactants: Glucose. ◦ Products: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), and NADH. 2 Krebs Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix): ◦ Reactant: Acetyl CoA. ◦ Products: CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, and 2 ATP. 3 Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (Inner Mitochondrial Membrane): ◦ Reactants: NADH and FADH₂ (electron carriers). ◦ Products: Water and ~32-34 ATP. Key Points • No oxygen = no Krebs cycle or ETC; only 2 ATP are produced via glycolysis. • Fermentation occurs in anaerobic conditions: ◦ Converts pyruvate into lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol (in yeast). Photosynthesis Overview • Process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy (sugars). • Formula: CO2+H2O→O2+G3PCO_2 + H_2O \rightarrow O_2 + G3PCO2​+H2​O→O2​+G3P. Key Concepts 1 Light Reactions (Thylakoid Membranes): ◦ Products: ATP and NADPH (used in the Calvin Cycle). ◦ Oxygen is produced by Photosystem II. 2 Calvin Cycle (Stroma): ◦ Uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into G3P (a sugar precursor). Photosystems • Photosystem II: Produces oxygen and ATP. • Photosystem I: Produces NADPH. Adaptations • C4 Pathway: Spatial separation of steps to avoid photorespiration. • CAM Pathway: Temporal separation, stomata open at night to reduce water loss. Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis • Division of a eukaryotic somatic (non-reproductive) cell into two identical diploid cells. • Phases: 1 Prophase: Chromosomes condense; spindle forms. 2 Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator. 3 Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate. 4 Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform. 5 Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm splits into two cells. Meiosis • Specialized cell division in germ cells (ovaries/testes) to produce gametes. • Key Features: ◦ Two divisions produce four genetically unique haploid cells. ◦ Crossing over occurs during Prophase I for genetic diversity. Binary Fission • A simple form of cell division in prokaryotes producing two identical cells. Genetics • Haploid: Single set of chromosomes (e.g., gametes). • Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes (e.g., somatic cells). • Punnett Squares and Pedigrees: Tools to predict genetic inheritance.

09.B BIO, C1 Punnett Squares (PART B)