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Peristalsis / how is food absorbed

System Interactions in Animals Tools Finish System Interactions in Animals The human body is made of many different organ systems. Each system performs unique functions for the body, but the systems also interact with each other to perform more complex functions. Major Organ Systems Body Systems In humans, cells, tissues, and organs group together to form organ systems. These systems each perform different functions for the human body. The major organ systems and their functions in humans include: The Nervous System — The nervous systems consists of two parts. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that connect the central nervous system to other parts of the body. The brain plays an important role in interpreting the information picked up by the sensory system. It helps in producing a precise response to the stimuli. It also controls bodily functions such as movements, thoughts, speech, and memory. The brain also controls many processes related to homeostasis in the body. The spinal cord connects to the brain through the brainstem. From the brainstem, the spinal cord extends to all the major nerves in the body. The spinal cord is the origin of spinal nerves that branch out to various body parts. These nerves help in receiving and transmitting signals from various body parts. The spinal cord helps in reflex actions of the body The smallest unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell, or neuron. Neurons communicate with each other and with other cells by producing and releasing electrochemical signals known as nerve impulses. Neurons consist of the cell body, the dendrites, and the axon. The cell body consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm. Dendrites are specialized branch-like structures that help in conducting impulses to and from the various body parts. Axons are long, slender extensions of the neuron. Each neuron possesses just a single axon. Its function is to carry the impulses away from the cell body to other neurons. The Circulatory System — The circulatory (or cardiovascular) system is composed of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood to and from the lungs so that gas exchange can take place. As the circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body, dissolved nutrients and wastes are also delivered to their destinations. The heart is a muscular organ roughly the size of an adult human's closed fist. It is present behind the breastbone, slightly to the left. It consists of four chambers: right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle. The heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps this blood to the lugs, where it is oxygenated. The oxygen-rich blood reenters the heart and is then pumped back through the body. The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood to and from the lungs so that gas exchange can take place. As the circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body, dissolved nutrients and wastes are also delivered to their destinations. Blood circulation takes place through blood vessels. Blood vessels are tubular structures that form a network within the body and transport blood to each tissue. There are three major types of blood vessels: veins, arteries, and capillaries. Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart, except for pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different organs, except for the pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. The arteries branch out to form capillaries. These capillaries are thin-walled vessels through which nutrients and wastes are exchanged with cells. The Respiratory System — The main structures of the respiratory system are the trachea (windpipe), the lungs, and the diaphragm. When the diaphragm contracts, it creates a vacuum in the lungs that causes them to fill with air. During this inhalation, oxygen diffuses into the circulatory system while carbon dioxide diffuses out into the air that will be exhaled. The trachea branches out into two primary bronchi. Each bronchus is further divided into numerous secondary bronchi. These secondary bronchi further branch into tertiary bronchi. Finally, each tertiary bronchus branches into numerous bronchioles. Each bronchiole terminates into a tiny, sac-like structure known as an alveolus. The walls of each alveolus are thin and contain numerous blood capillaries. The process of gaseous exchange occurs in these alveoli. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle situated at the lower end of the rib cage. It separates the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, and the chest cavity enlarges, creating a vacuum that allows air to be drawn in. This causes the alveoli in the lungs to expand with air. During this process, oxygen diffuses into the circulatory system while carbon dioxide diffuses out into the air that will be exhaled. On the other hand, expansion of the diaphragm causes exhalation of air containing carbon dioxide. The Digestive System — The digestive system consists of the mouth, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. It is responsible for taking in food, digesting it to extract energy and nutrients that cells can use to function, and expelling the remaining waste material. Mechanical and chemical digestion takes place in the mouth and stomach, while absorption of nutrients and water takes place in the intestines. The digestive system begins at the mouth, where food is taken in, and ends at the anus, where waste is expelled. The food taken into the mouth breaks into pieces by the grinding action of the teeth. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth with the breakdown of carbohydrates into simple sugars with the help of salivary enzymes. The chewed food, known as a bolus, enters the stomach through the esophagus. The bolus mixes with acids and enzymes released by the stomach. Protein digestion starts in the stomach as proteins are broken down into peptides. This partially digested food is known as chyme. Chyme enters the small intestine and mixes with bile, a substance secreted by the liver, along with enzymes secreted by the pancreas. The digestion of fats starts in the small intestine as bile and pancreatic enzymes break down fats into fatty acids. The surface of the small intestine consists of hair-like projections known as villi. These villi help in absorbing nutrients from the digested food. The digested food enters the large intestine, or colon, where water and salts are reabsorbed. Any undigested food is expelled out of the body as waste. The Skeletal System — The skeletal system is made up of over 200 bones. It protects the body's internal organs, provides support for the body and gives it shape, and works with the muscular system to move the body. In addition, bones can store calcium and produce red and white blood cells. The Muscular System — The muscular system includes more than 650 tough, elastic pieces of tissue. The primary function of any muscle tissue is movement. This includes the movement of blood through the arteries, the movement of food through the digestive tract, and the movement of arms and legs through space. Skeletal muscles relax and contract to move the bones of the skeletal system. The Excretory System — The excretory system removes excess water, dangerous substances, and wastes from the body. The excretory system also plays an important role in maintaining body equilibrium, or homeostasis. The human excretory system includes the lungs, sweat glands in the skin, and the urinary system (such as the kidneys and the bladder). The body uses oxygen for metabolic processes. Oxygen metabolism results in the production of carbon dioxide, which is a waste matter. The lungs expel carbon dioxide through the mouth and nose. The liver converts toxic metabolic wastes, such as ammonia, into less harmful susbtances. Ammonia is converted to urea, which is then excreted in the urine. The skin also expels urea and small amounts of ammonia through sweat. The skin is embedded with sweat glands. These glands secrete sweat, a solution of water, salt, and wastes. The sweat rises to the skin's surface, where it evaporates. The skin maintains homeostasis by producing sweat in hot environments. Sweat production cools and prevents excessive heating of the body. Each kidney contains about a million tiny structures called nephrons, which filter the blood and collect waste products, such as urea, salts, and excess water that go on to become urine. The Endocrine System — The endocrine system is involved with the control of body processes such as fluid balance, growth, and sexual development. The endocrine system controls these processes through hormones, which are produced by endocrine glands. Some endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, thymus gland, ovaries in females, and testes in males. The Immune System — The immune system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that defends the body against foreign invaders. The immune system uses antibodies and specialized cells, such as T-cells, to defend the body from microorganisms that cause disease. The Reproductive System — The reproductive system includes structures, such as the uterus and fallopian tubes in females and the penis and testes in males, that allow humans to produce new offspring. The reproductive system also controls certain hormones in the human body that regulate the development of sexual characteristics and determine when the body is able to reproduce. The Integumentary System — The integumentary system is made up of a person's skin, hair, and nails. The skin acts as a barrier to the outside world by keeping moisture in the body and foreign substances out of the body. Nerves in the skin act as an interface with the outside world, helping to regulate important aspects of homeostasis, such as body temperature. Interacting Organ Systems The organ systems work together to perform complex bodily functions. The functions of regulation, nutrient absorption, defense, and reproduction are only possible because of the interaction of multiple body systems. Regulation All living organisms must maintain homeostasis, a stable internal environment. Organisms maintain homeostasis by monitoring internal conditions and making adjustments to the body systems as necessary. For example, as body temperature increases, skin receptors and receptors in a region of the brain called the hypothalamus sense the change. The change triggers the nervous system to send signals to the integumentary and circulatory systems. These signals cause the skin to sweat and blood vessels close to the surface of the skin to dilate, actions which dispel heat to decrease body temperature. Both the nervous system and the endocrine system are typically involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. The nervous system receives and processes stimuli, and then it sends signals to body structures to coordinate a response. The endocrine system helps regulate the response through the release of hormones, which travel through the circulatory system to their site of action. For example, the endocrine system regulates the level of sugar in the blood by the release of the hormones insulin, which stimulates uptake of glucose by cells, and glucagon, which stimulates the release of glucose by the liver. The nervous and endocrine systems interact with the excretory system in the process of osmoregulation, the homeostatic regulation of water and fluid balance in the body. The excretory system expels excess water, salts, and waste products. The excretion of excessive amounts of water can be harmful to the body because it reduces blood pressure. If the nervous system detects a decrease in blood pressure, it stimulates the endocrine system to release antidiuretic hormone. This hormone decreases the amount of water released by the kidneys to ensure appropriate blood pressure. Appropriate levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are also maintained by homeostatic mechanisms that involve several organ systems. Excess carbon dioxide, a byproduct of cellular respiration, can be harmful to an organism. As blood circulates throughout the body, it picks up carbon dioxide waste from cells and transports it to the lungs, where it is exhaled while fresh oxygen is inhaled. If the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood increases above a certain threshold, the nervous system directs the lungs to increase their respiration rate to remove the excess carbon dioxide, which ensures that the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are maintained at appropriate levels. In this way, the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems work together to limit the level of carbon dioxide in the blood. Nutrient Absorption To absorb nutrients from food, the nervous, digestive, muscular, excretory, and circulatory systems all interact. The nervous system controls the intake of food and regulates the muscular action of chewing, which mechanically breaks down food. As food travels through the stomach and intestines, the digestive system structures release enzymes to stimulate its chemical breakdown. At the same time, the muscular action, called peristalsis, of the muscles in the wall of the stomach help churn the food and push it through the digestive tract. In the intestines, nutrients from food travel across the surfaces of the villi. The nutrients are then picked up by the blood, and the circulatory system transports the nutrients throughout the cells of the body. The endocrine system releases hormones, such as insulin, that control the rate at which certain body cells use nutrients. Any excess minerals, such as calcium, in the blood are deposited in and stored by the skeletal system. Waste products produced by the use of nutrients, as well as the leftover solid waste from the digestion of food, exit the body through the excretory system. Throughout the process of nutrient absorption, the nervous system controls the muscles involved in digestion, circulation, and excretion. Defense Several body systems interact to defend the body from external threats. The body's first line of defense is the integumentary system, which provide a physical barrier that prevents pathogens from entering the body. The skin of the integumentary system also contains receptors for pain, temperature, and pressure. If an unpleasant stimulus is encountered, these receptors send signals to the central nervous system. In response, the central nervous system sends commands to the muscles to move the body part away from the stimulus. In this way, the integumentary, nervous, and muscular systems interact to prevent damage to the body. In the event of a break in the skin, the nervous, immune, lymphatic, and circulatory systems work together to repair the wound and protect the body from pathogens. When the skin is broken, specialized blood cells called platelets form a clot to stop the bleeding. These platelets also release chemicals that travel through the circulatory system and recruit cells, like immune system cells, to repair the wound. These immune cells, or white blood cells, are transported by the circulatory and lymphatic systems to the site of the wound, where they identify and destroy potentially pathogenic cells to prevent an infection. Some lymphocytes, white blood cells produced by the lymphatic system, also produce antibodies to neutralize specific pathogens. All of the white blood cells involved in the body's response were originally produced in the bone marrow of the skeletal system. If an infection does occur

Digestion Notes (Biology 12) I. Introduction/Overview • Digestion: Breakdown of food into small, soluble molecules • Occurs physically and chemically • Absorption: The process of taking specific compounds into the body • Elimination: Expulsion of materials not absorbed into the body • Excretion: Removal of waste from metabolic processes II. Location of Parts and Function A. Teeth • Type of teeth depends on diet: • Carnivores: Sharp teeth for grasping prey and severing meat • Herbivores: Flat teeth for crushing plant fibers • Omnivores: A combination of tooth types for eating both meat and plants • Structure: • Enamel: Hard outer layer • Dentin: Bony layer under enamel • Pulp: Living part of the tooth (contains nerves and blood vessels) • Teeth are embedded in sockets in the jaw B. Tongue • Functions: • Taste: Detects salt, sour, sweet, and bitter flavors • Positioning food for chewing C. Salivary Glands • Three pairs: • Parotid (side of face; swells with mumps) • Sublingual (under tongue) • Submandibular (lower jaw) • Produce saliva, which contains enzymes for digestion D. Palates • Located at the top of the mouth • Hard palate: Front, separates the mouth from the nasal cavity • Soft palate: Back, ends in the uvula E. Pharynx • Area between mouth and esophagus • Used for both breathing and eating • Epiglottis: Closes over the glottis when swallowing to prevent choking F. Esophagus • Muscular tube that pushes food into the stomach using peristalsis • Composed of five tissue layers: 1. Mucosa (epithelial lining) 2. Submucosa (connective tissue) 3. Muscularis (two muscle layers: circular and longitudinal) 4. Serosa (outer epithelial layer; secretes fluid for lubrication) G. Cardiac Sphincter • Muscle at the junction of the esophagus and stomach • Opens to allow food into the stomach H. Stomach • J-shaped organ, located left of the body’s center • Capacity: About 1 liter • Inner lining contains gastric glands: • Parietal cells → Produce HCl • Chief cells → Produce pepsinogen, activated by HCl into pepsin • Epithelial cells → Produce mucus (protects stomach lining) • Functions: • Storage of food (empties in 2-6 hours) • Digestion using pepsin and salivary amylase • Absorption of water, ethanol • Regulation of pepsin production by the hormone gastrin I. Pyloric Sphincter • Muscle at the junction of the stomach and small intestine • Opens to allow chyme (partially digested food) into the small intestine J. Small Intestine • Length: ~ 3 meters (10 feet) • Highly convoluted to increase surface area for absorption • Interior folds covered with villi (tiny projections that increase surface area) • Divided into three parts: 1. Duodenum (first 25 cm): Produces lactase, peptidase, maltase, nuclease 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum • Functions: • Completes digestion • Absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream K. Liver • Largest organ in the body • Monitors blood composition via the hepatic portal vein L. Pancreas • Produces pancreatic juice (digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid) • Produces insulin (regulates blood glucose) M. Ileo-Caecal Opening • Joins the small intestine to the large intestine N. Caecum • Blind pouch at the end of the small intestine • No function in humans (vestigial), but in herbivores, it helps digest cellulose O. Large Intestine • Parts: 1. Ascending colon 2. Transverse colon 3. Descending colon 4. Rectum (stores feces) 5. Anus (controls feces release) • Functions: • Reabsorbs water (~95% of 10L daily intake) • Forms feces • Produces vitamins B and K using E. coli bacteria III. Digestive Enzymes Enzyme Source pH Digested Food Product Salivary Amylase Salivary Glands 7 Starch Maltose Pepsin Stomach 2 Protein Peptides Pancreatic Amylase Pancreas Basic Starch Maltose Trypsin Pancreas Basic Protein Peptides Lipase Pancreas Basic Fat Glycerol & Fatty Acids Peptidases Small Intestine Basic Peptides Amino Acids Maltase Small Intestine Basic Maltose Glucose Nuclease Pancreas Basic DNA/RNA Nucleotides IV. Swallowing and Peristalsis • Swallowing: Food forms a bolus (food ball) and is moved down the esophagus • Peristalsis: Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle that push food through the digestive tract V. The 7 Functions of the Liver 1. Detoxifies harmful substances (e.g., alcohol) 2. Stores glucose as glycogen 3. Destroys old red blood cells (recycling heme into bile) 4. Produces urea from amino acid breakdown 5. Makes blood proteins 6. Stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, K 7. Converts amino acids to glucose if needed (gluconeogenesis) VI. Digestive Juices & Hormones Gastric Juice (Stomach) • Contains HCl, pepsinogen (activated into pepsin), and mucus • Helps digest proteins into peptides Pancreatic Juice • Contains sodium bicarbonate (neutralizes acid) • Enzymes: Pancreatic amylase, trypsin, lipase, nuclease Bile (Liver & Gallbladder) • Breaks down fats into small droplets for lipase to act on VII. Control of Digestive Gland Secretions • Nervous Reflex: Presence of food triggers digestion • Conditioned Reflex: External stimuli (e.g

Chapter 9 – Skeletal Muscles 1. Connective Tissue Surrounding a Skeletal Muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds the entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers. 2. Histology and Function of Sarcomeres: • Histology: Sarcomeres are the structural and functional units of skeletal muscles, composed of repeating units between two Z-lines. • Function: They enable muscle contraction through the sliding filament mechanism. 3. Main Components: • Thin Filaments: Actin, tropomyosin, and troponin. • Thick Filaments: Myosin. 4. Function of Transverse Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: • Transverse Tubules (T-tubules): Transmit action potentials deep into the muscle fiber. • Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores and releases calcium ions for muscle contraction. 5. Motor Unit: A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. 6. Neuromuscular Junction: The synapse where a motor neuron meets a muscle fiber, allowing for signal transmission. 7. Synapse: A junction between two neurons or a neuron and a muscle cell where communication occurs. 8. Actions of Acetylcholine (ACh): • Initiates muscle contraction by binding to receptors on the sarcolemma. • Degraded by: Acetylcholinesterase. 9. Neurotransmitter Released at Motor Axon Terminals: Acetylcholine. 10. Steps in Excitation-Contraction Coupling: • Action potential travels along sarcolemma. • Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. • Calcium binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move, exposing binding sites on actin. • Myosin heads form cross-bridges and initiate contraction. 11. Order of Muscle Fiber Contraction: • Action potential → Calcium release → Cross-bridge formation → Power stroke → ATP binding → Cross-bridge detachment. 12. Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: • Sliding filament theory: Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other. 13. Interaction of Actin, Myosin, and Calcium: • Calcium binds to troponin, shifting tropomyosin to expose myosin-binding sites on actin, enabling cross-bridge cycling. 14. Cross-Bridges: Myosin heads that bind to actin during contraction. 15. Contraction Types: • Isotonic: Muscle length changes. • Eccentric: Muscle lengthens under tension. • Isometric: Muscle tension without length change. • Concentric: Muscle shortens under tension. 16. Force of Muscle Contraction: • Controlled by motor unit recruitment. • Partial Tetany: Incomplete relaxation. • Fused Tetany: Sustained contraction without relaxation. 17. Bones and Muscles as Levers: • Fulcrum: Pivot point of the lever. 18. Synergist and Antagonist: • Synergist: Assists the primary mover. • Antagonist: Opposes the primary mover. 19. Muscle Atrophy: Wasting of muscle due to disuse or disease. 20. Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness by targeting ACh receptors. 21. Linea Alba: A fibrous structure running down the midline of the abdomen. 22. Origin, Insertion, and Actions of Specific Muscles: (Let me know which specific ones you’d like to focus on.) Chapter 17 – Digestive System 1. Alimentary Canal: A continuous muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus. 2. Functions of the Digestive System: • Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. 3. Breakdown and Absorption: • Carbohydrates: Begin in the mouth (amylase). • Proteins: Start in the stomach (pepsin). • Fats: Start in the small intestine (lipase, bile). 4. Layers of Alimentary Canal Walls: • Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa. 5. Accessory Organs: • Liver, pancreas, gallbladder. 6. Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Effects: • Sympathetic: Decreases digestion. • Parasympathetic: Enhances digestion. 7. Hormones: • Gastrin: Stimulates gastric juice secretion. • Cholecystokinin (CCK): Stimulates bile and pancreatic juice. • Secretin: Stimulates bicarbonate secretion. 8. Peristalsis vs. Segmentation: • Peristalsis: Wave-like contractions. • Segmentation: Mixing movements. 9. Epiglottis Function: Prevents food from entering the trachea. 10. Heartburn: Caused by stomach acid reflux into the esophagus. 11. Stomach Parts: Fundus, body, pylorus. 12. Secretions: • Parietal Cells: Hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor. • Chief Cells: Pepsinogen. 13. Digestive Enzymes and Substances: • Amylase: Breaks down starch. • Pepsin: Digests proteins. • Trypsin: Protein digestion. • Lipase: Fat digestion. • Bile Salts: Emulsify fats. 14. Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas Functions: • Liver: Produces bile. • Gallbladder: Stores bile. • Pancreas: Produces enzymes and bicarbonate. 15. Anatomy of Bile Ducts: • Common hepatic, cystic, and pancreatic ducts form the common bile duct. 16. Functions of Large Intestine: • Absorption of water, vitamin production, and feces formation. 17. Defecation Reflex: Triggered by rectal wall distension. Chapter 18 – Nutrition 1. Excess Glucose Storage: As glycogen in the liver and muscles. 2. Tissue Requiring Glucose: Nervous tissue (brain). 3. Triglyceride Components: Glycerol and three fatty acids. 4. Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body

Digestive System Notes Alimentary Canal (Gastrointestinal Tract) The continuous tube through which food passes, allowing digestion and absorption of nutrients. Organs Included: 1. Mouth: • Entry point for food. • Mechanical digestion via chewing (teeth). • Chemical digestion begins with saliva containing amylase. 2. Pharynx: • Passageway for food, fluids, and air. 3. Esophagus: • Propels food to the stomach using peristalsis. 4. Stomach: • Function: Temporary storage tank for food. • Mixes food with gastric juices for breakdown into chyme. • Secretes pepsin (breaks down proteins). 5. Small Intestine: • Divisions: • Duodenum. • Jejunum. • Ileum. • Primary site of nutrient absorption. • Receives bile (from liver) and pancreatic juices (from pancreas) to aid digestion. 6. Large Intestine: • Divisions: • Cecum, appendix, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid), rectum, anal canal. • Functions: • Absorbs water. • Houses bacterial flora for vitamin synthesis. • Forms and eliminates feces. 7. Rectum and Anal Canal: • Stores feces for elimination. Accessory Digestive Organs These organs assist the alimentary canal by producing or storing substances necessary for digestion. Organs Included: 1. Teeth: • Primary Teeth: 20 deciduous teeth erupt between 6 and 24 months. • Permanent Teeth: 32 permanent teeth appear between 6 and 12 years. • Classifications: • Incisors: For cutting and nipping. • Canines: Fang-like for tearing and piercing. • Premolars (Bicuspids) and Molars: Broad crowns for grinding and crushing. 2. Tongue: • Mostly skeletal muscle. • Functions: • Contains taste buds to analyze nutrient content of food. • Mixes food with saliva to form a bolus. • Aids in swallowing. 3. Salivary Glands: • Function: Produce and secrete saliva (water-based liquid containing amylase) for chemical digestion. • Types: • Parotid glands. • Submandibular glands. • Sublingual glands. • Fun Fact: Mumps infect the parotid glands. 4. Liver: • Secretion: Produces bile, a greenish liquid (pH 7.6–8.6) essential for fat digestion. • Functions of Hepatocytes: • Produce bile. • Process nutrients from blood. • Store fat-soluble vitamins. • Detoxify harmful substances. 5. Gallbladder: • Thin-walled muscular sac on the liver’s ventral surface. • Functions: • Stores and concentrates bile. • Releases bile into the duodenum to emulsify fats. • Disorders: • Gallstones causing blockages and pain. • Extreme cases can result in gallbladder rupture. 6. Pancreas: • Exocrine Function: • Produces pancreatic juice containing enzymes for digesting carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. • Endocrine Function: • Secretes insulin to regulate blood glucose levels. • Disorders: Malfunction can cause diabetes. Important Notes About Digestive System Processes 1. Ingestion: Intake of food through the mouth. 2. Propulsion: • Swallowing. • Peristalsis (waves of muscle contractions moving food through the tract). 3. Mechanical Digestion: • Chewing (mouth). • Churning (stomach). • Segmentation (small intestine). 4. Chemical Digestion: • Breakdown of food molecules by enzymes. 5. Absorption: • Movement of nutrients into blood or lymph via small intestine. 6. Defecation: • Elimination of indigestible substances and waste products as feces.

Group 5 - Inguinal Hernia to Peristalsis

Bio 132 - Digestive System Part 5: Pancreas, Small intestine, Intestinal motility, Peristalsis

Digestive System