Complete Middle Ages and Renaissance Music Study Guide This version combines your written notes with the clues from your crossword worksheet. I’ve organized the material by topic and included a crossword answer key so you can study both the concepts and the vocabulary. Part 1: Historical periods Period Dates Main ideas Middle Ages 450–1450 Church influence, Gregorian chant, monasteries, feudalism Ars Nova Around 1300s New musical notation and rhythmic developments Renaissance 1450–1600 Rebirth of ancient ideas, humanism, polyphony, instrumental music Middle Ages society Feudalism: Land exchanged for service. Nobility: Wealthy, powerful social class; nobles often lived in castles. Peasantry: The largest and generally lowest social class. Clergy: Religious leaders, including priests and monks. Monasteries: Places where monks lived, studied, copied books, and preserved writings. Liturgy: The official rituals and services used in religious worship. Rote: Learning by repetition or copying. Part 2: Medieval music Gregorian chant Religious singing in Latin. Traditionally associated with Pope Gregory I. Monophonic: One melodic line. A cappella: Without instrumental accompaniment. Non-metrical rhythm: No regular beat; the rhythm flows freely. Usually has a narrow pitch range and moves mainly by steps. Creates a calm, reverent, otherworldly atmosphere. Used in church worship. The Catholic Mass The Mass has two main sections: Proper: Changes with the church calendar. Ordinary: Stays the same throughout the church year. Prayer Meaning Kyrie Lord, have mercy Gloria Glory to God on high Credo We believe in one God Sanctus Holy, holy, holy Agnus Dei Lamb of God Requiem Mass: A funeral Mass. Dies irae: A text about the Day of Wrath; associated with judgment and death. The traditional Requiem omits the Gloria and Credo. Other medieval music terms Secular music: Nonreligious music. Organum: Medieval music that adds another melodic line to chant. Polyphony: Two or more independent melodic lines. Drone: A long, sustained note beneath a melody. Church modes: Scales used in medieval sacred music, such as Dorian. Dissonance: Sounds that create tension or instability. Cantus firmus: A pre-existing melody used as the basis for a composition. Motet: A polyphonic vocal work, often with a sacred text. Purest voice: A treble voice before puberty. Part 3: Important composers and musicians Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179): German mystic, healer, poet, and female composer. Wrote Ordo Virtutum, an early morality play. Léonin and Pérotin: Composers associated with the Notre Dame School; helped develop organum and rhythmic notation. Guillaume IX: Early troubadour from southern France. Beatriz de Dia: Female troubadour who wrote songs addressing men. Guillaume de Machaut: Medieval French poet and composer; wrote the Messe de Nostre Dame. Francesco Landini: Blind Italian medieval composer. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina: Renaissance composer whose sacred music became an important model of Catholic church music. Thomas Weelkes: English Renaissance composer who wrote As Vesta Was from Latmos Hill Descending. John Dowland: English Renaissance composer known for lute songs, including Flow My Tears. Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance artist and example of a Renaissance man. Part 4: Secular music and medieval composers Term Definition Chanson French song, often about courtly love Troubadour Poet-musician from southern France Trouvère Poet-musician from northern France Minnesinger German courtly love poet-musician Jongleur Traveling entertainer who could sing, juggle, and perform Estampie Medieval dance Courtly love Idealized romantic love expressed in songs and poetry Notre Dame School Center of early polyphonic music in Paris Ars Nova “New art”; musical developments around the 1300s Part 5: Renaissance music Renaissance: Means “rebirth,” with renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Humanism: Focus on human potential, learning, and achievement. Gutenberg's movable type: Helped books and knowledge spread. Renaissance man: Someone skilled in many areas, such as Leonardo da Vinci. Polyphonic texture: Multiple independent melodic lines. Word painting / text painting: Music illustrates the meaning of the words being sung. Vernacular: The everyday or native language of a region. Palestrina: Famous for Renaissance sacred music. Renaissance Mass: Often set the Ordinary to music and used multiple vocal parts. Renaissance dances Pavane: A solemn dance in duple meter, or groups of two beats. Galliard: A lively dance in triple meter, or groups of three beats. Instruments to recognize Instrument Key fact Recorder Woodwind instrument Bladder pipe Wind instrument similar to a bagpipe Sackbut Early trombone Serpent Low-pitched wind instrument Lute Plucked string instrument; early guitar-like instrument Viola da gamba Bowed string instrument similar in role to a cello Organetto Small portable organ Organ Keyboard instrument using pipes Harpsichord Keyboard instrument that plucks strings Dulcimer String instrument played by striking its strings Crumhorn Curved wind instrument with a buzzing tone Hurdy-gurdy String instrument played with a hand-cranked wheel Lyre Ancient string instrument Cornett Historical wind instrument Fiddle Bowed string instrument Part 6: Ancient Greek and Roman music Greeks: Used music in dramas and cultural events. Romans: Used music in the military and public events. Lyre: Ancient string instrument dating back thousands of years. Animal gut: Historically used to make some instrument strings. Part 7: Crossword answer key These answers follow the Across and Down clues visible in your worksheet. A few answers depend on how the clue is worded, so I’ve included the most likely answer. Across No. Answer What to remember 2 Recorder Common Renaissance instrument 6 Bladder pipe Similar to a bagpipe 10 Polyphony Texture of organum 12 Credo “We believe in one God” 13 Léonin Notre Dame composer 15 Jongleur Traveling entertainer 16 Palestrina Renaissance sacred composer 17 Motet Polyphonic sacred choral work 19 Sackbut Early trombone 22 Estampie Medieval dance 23 English Language of Weelkes's music 29 Polyphonic Multiple vocal lines 32 Virtutum Ordo Virtutum 33 Vernacular Native language 34 Serpent Bass wind instrument 39 Liturgy Prescribed worship rites 41 Rhythmic notation Represents musical rhythms 43 Drone Steady, sustained sound 44 Vernacular Native language 45 Monophonic One melodic line 46 Viola da gamba Bowed string instrument 48 Organum Chant with an added melody 50 Thomas Weelkes Composed As Vesta Was Descending 52 Francesco Landini Blind Italian medieval composer 58 Leonardo da Vinci Painted the Mona Lisa 59 Chant Melody used as a cantus firmus 62 Proper Mass section that changes 63 Renaissance Means “rebirth” 65 Peasantry Lowest major social class 66 Modes Scales used in chants 67 John Dowland Composer of Flow My Tears 69 Text painting Music depicts the words 70 Review the crossing letters The clue is unclear in the photo 72 Treble voice Voice before puberty 73 Recorder Early reed/woodwind instrument 74 Geometry Study of shapes and measurements 75 Humanism Focus on human life and achievement Down No. Answer What to remember 1 Music Essential part of education 3 Lyre Common ancient instrument 4 Mona Lisa Famous Renaissance painting 5 Military How Romans used music 7 Sistine Michelangelo's chapel 8 Gregory I Associated with Gregorian chant 9 Jousting Armed competition in the Renaissance 11 Ordinary Mass section that stays the same 14 Mass Reenactment of the Last Supper 18 Galliard Renaissance dance in triple meter 20 A cappella Without accompaniment 21 Courtly love Idealized love and manners 24 Harpsichord Renaissance keyboard instrument 25 Lute Early guitar-like instrument 26 Ars “New art” in Ars Nova 27 Pavane Solemn dance in duple meter 28 Gurdy Hurdy-gurdy 30 Cathedral Major church building 31 Sanctus “Holy, Holy, Holy” Part 8: What to memorize first If you have limited study time, focus on these: Dates: Middle Ages 450–1450; Renaissance 1450–1600; Ars Nova around the 1300s. Textures: Monophonic = one melody; polyphonic = multiple independent melodies. Gregorian chant: Latin, religious, monophonic, a cappella, free rhythm. Mass prayers: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei. Mass sections: Proper changes; Ordinary stays the same. People: Hildegard, Léonin, Pérotin, Machaut, Landini, Palestrina, Weelkes, Dowland, Leonardo da Vinci. Music terms: Organum, motet, drone, cantus firmus, word painting, vernacular. Dances: Pavane = duple; galliard = triple. Instruments: Recorder, sackbut, serpent, lute, viola da gamba, harpsichord, crumhorn, hurdy-gurdy. History: Feudalism, monasteries, humanism, Gutenberg, and the Renaissance

European Absolute Monarchs and Political Changes: Louis XIV to William and Mary

TOPIC 3: ONE PAST BUT MANY HISTORIES

L4 - Maori background pre-European colonisation of NZ

History: The Mali Empire, Saharan Trade, and the Spread of Islam

West African and Swahili Civilizations: The Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan Trade, and Timbuktu

Mary Poppins Jr. Mr. Corry Lines

Đề cương ôn tập Giữa học kì 1 - Lịch sử 12 (Trường Marie Curie Long Biên)

maori

Absolutely 💗 I made this directly from the Unit 1 Review video. The biggest thing your teacher says at the end is that the test won’t just ask you to memorize definitions — you need to be able to apply the concepts to new situations and explain your reasoning using evidence. 🧬 BIOLOGY UNIT 1 TEST STUDY GUIDE 1. 🔬 Scientific Thinking & Experimental Design Know the difference: Observation * Something you directly see, measure, or notice. * Example: The plant grew 4 cm. Inference * A conclusion/explanation based on observations and evidence. * Example: The plant grew because it received more sunlight. Hypothesis * A testable prediction. * Usually written as: If ___, then ___, because ___. Variables Independent variable * What the scientist changes. Dependent variable * What the scientist measures. ⭐ Easy way to remember: Independent = I change it. Dependent = Data I collect. Control group * Used as a comparison. * It helps scientists see whether the independent variable actually caused a difference. Constants * Things that are kept the same during an experiment. Fair test A good experiment should change one main variable while keeping other important conditions controlled. Experimental evidence You need to be able to decide whether results: * Support the hypothesis * Do not support the hypothesis ⚠️ Don’t automatically say a hypothesis was “proven.” Scientists use evidence to determine whether results support it. Repeated trials Scientists repeat experiments and collect multiple measurements because one trial may not be reliable. Sources of error Be able to identify things that could have affected an investigation, such as: * Something not being kept constant * Measuring incorrectly * Equipment problems * Human error * Not enough trials ⸻ 📊 2. Working With Data Your teacher specifically says you need to be able to: Read: * Tables * Graphs * Diagrams * Written scenarios Identify patterns and trends Look for things like: * Increasing * Decreasing * Staying the same * One group being higher/lower than another Compare groups Use actual evidence from the data. ❌ Weak: Group A did better. ✅ Better: Group A had a higher growth rate than Group B. Make predictions Use the pattern in the data to predict what could happen next. Result vs. Conclusion Result = WHAT happened Conclusion = WHAT the results mean Example: Result: Plants receiving more light grew 5 cm taller. Conclusion: The data suggests that greater light exposure increased plant growth. ⸻ 🌱 3. Characteristics of Living Things You need to understand what separates living things from nonliving things. Living things have characteristics such as: 🧫 Cells Living things are made of cells. ⚡ Energy Living things need and use energy. 🌱 Growth & development Living things grow and change throughout their lives. 🧬 Reproduction Living things can produce new organisms. 👀 Response Living things respond to changes in their environment. ⚖️ Maintaining internal conditions Living things maintain stable internal conditions. This is called homeostasis. Evidence questions You may be given an unfamiliar example and asked: Is it living or did it come from something living? Don’t just guess based on whether it moves. Look at the evidence and the characteristics of life. ⸻ 🔬 4. Microscopes & Cellular Observation Your teacher says you need to understand: Purpose of a microscope A microscope allows scientists to observe biological structures that are too small to see with the naked eye. Magnification Magnification makes something appear larger. You need to understand how changing magnification affects what you see. Generally: ⬆️ Higher magnification * Object appears larger * You see a smaller area * You may see more detail ⬇️ Lower magnification * Object appears smaller * You see a larger area Evidence from microscopes Scientists can use observations made with microscopes as evidence. Microscope parts Your video says you should be able to identify microscope parts and know their functions, so make sure you know the parts your class used, especially: * Eyepiece/ocular lens * Objective lenses * Stage * Light source * Diaphragm * Coarse adjustment * Fine adjustment ⸻ ⚛️ 5. Chemistry of Life The atom Know the basic structure of an atom and the roles of its particles: Particle Charge Proton + Neutron 0 Electron − Chemical bonds Atoms can interact with each other and form chemical bonds. You need to understand how atoms interact to form bonds, not just memorize the word “bond.” ⸻ 🖤 6. Why Carbon Is Important Your review specifically says you need to understand: Why carbon is especially important in living organisms. Carbon is important because it can form many different bonds and build the large, complex molecules needed by living things. Structure → Function This is a BIG idea. The structure of a molecule affects its function. In other words: What something looks like/is built like → affects what it can do. You should be able to apply this idea to unfamiliar examples. ⸻ 🧬 7. Biological Molecules Know the four major types of biological molecules and their general roles: 🍞 Carbohydrates Generally used for: * Quick/short-term energy * Some structural purposes 🥑 Lipids Generally used for: * Long-term energy storage * Cell membranes * Insulation/protection 💪 Proteins Used for many jobs, including: * Structure * Transport * Movement * Enzymes 🧬 Nucleic acids Used to: * Store and transmit genetic information ⭐ Remember: Carbs → energy Lipids → long-term energy/storage & membranes Proteins → many jobs, including enzymes Nucleic acids → genetic information ⸻ 🧪 8. ENZYMES ⭐ VERY IMPORTANT Your video has a whole section on enzymes, so definitely study this. What do enzymes do? Enzymes help biological chemical reactions happen more efficiently. They are biological catalysts. Enzyme + substrate An enzyme interacts with the substance it acts on, called the substrate. The substrate interacts with the enzyme’s active site. Think: Enzyme → active site → substrate Structure & function The shape/structure of an enzyme is important because it affects how it interacts with its substrate. That’s another example of: Structure → function Conditions affect enzymes Changes in environmental conditions can affect enzyme activity. For example: * Temperature * pH You need to be able to look at an enzyme investigation and interpret what happened. ⸻ 🌡️ 9. pH & Biological Systems pH scale The pH scale tells you how acidic or basic something is. Remember: 🔴 Low pH → acidic ⚪ pH 7 → neutral 🔵 High pH → basic Why does pH matter? Changes in pH can affect biological processes. This is especially important with enzymes, because changing the conditions can change enzyme activity. Test-style question You might see an experiment where an enzyme is tested at different pH levels. You should be able to: 1. Identify what was changed. 2. Look at the data. 3. Identify the pattern. 4. Explain what happened. 5. Use evidence from the data to support your conclusion. ⸻ 🚨 WHAT YOUR TEACHER REALLY WANTS YOU TO KNOW The last part of your video is SUPER important. It basically says: Don’t just memorize definitions. You need to be able to take what you know and use it in a new situation. For example, they might NOT ask: What is an independent variable? Instead, they could give you an experiment and ask: Which variable is the independent variable? You have to figure it out from the situation. ⸻ ⭐ THE BIG 10 TO KNOW BEFORE THE TEST If you’re short on time, make sure you can answer these: 1. What’s the difference between an observation and an inference? 2. What makes a hypothesis testable? 3. What’s the independent variable vs. dependent variable? 4. Why do scientists use controls, constants, and repeated trials? 5. How do you use data to support a conclusion? 6. What characteristics make something living? 7. How does changing microscope magnification affect what you see? 8. What are the four major biological molecules and their general jobs? 9. How do enzymes interact with substrates, and how can conditions affect enzyme activity? 10. What does pH tell you, and how can changing pH affect biological processes? 🧠 One sentence to remember the whole unit: Scientists use experiments → collect data → find patterns → make conclusions about how living systems work. And honestly, based on the video, #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, enzymes, and pH are the areas I’d focus on the most because the review repeatedly emphasizes applying those ideas to investigations rather than simply memorizing vocabulary.

ENGLISH 3/4 - MARY OLIVER QUOTES

Tikaka maori and criminal law

GENE223 Mod 4 - Biotechnology + Maori beliefs

Mari beugró - évszámok

too many ghosts lily lines

Chapter 9 — 10 Terms 1. Cloud Computing Easy definition: Using the internet to store, access, or use data and programs instead of keeping everything on your own device. 🔑 Test clue: “Stored/accessed online” or “through the internet.” 2. Cookie Easy definition: A small piece of data a website saves on your device to remember information about you. 🔑 Test clue: “Website remembers you.” 3. Cybersquatting Easy definition: Registering a domain name that uses someone else’s trademark or name, usually to make money. 🔑 Test clue: “Someone grabs a domain to profit from another’s name/trademark.” 4. Distributed Network Easy definition: A network where information or resources are spread across multiple computers instead of one central computer. 🔑 Test clue: “Multiple computers share the work/resources.” 5. Domain Name Easy definition: The easy-to-remember name people use to find a website. 🔑 Test clue: “Website address/name.” 6. Goodwill Easy definition: The value of a business’s good reputation and customer relationships. 🔑 Test clue: “Good reputation = goodwill.” 7. Internet Service Provider (ISP) Easy definition: A company that provides people with access to the internet. 🔑 Test clue: “Provides internet access.” 8. Social Media Easy definition: Online platforms where people create, share, and interact with content. 🔑 Test clue: “Post, share, comment, interact.” 9. Spam Easy definition: Unwanted electronic messages, usually sent to many people. 🔑 Test clue: “Unwanted/junk messages.” 10. Typosquatting Easy definition: Registering a domain name that is a misspelled version of a legitimate website. 🔑 Test clue: “TYPO = misspelled website.”

Mary 42

In a many-to-one relationship between entities E1 and E2, one entity instance of E1 may be in relationship with none, one or many entity instances of E2.

signature maki (rolls)

Chapter 3. Ethics and Social Responsibility iStock.com/Shaun Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you will be able to . . . 3-1 Explain the determinants of a civil society 3-2 Explain the concept of ethical behavior 3-3 Describe ethical behavior in business 3-4 Discuss corporate social responsibility 3-5 Describe the arguments for and against social responsibility 3-6 Explain cause-related marketing 3-1. Determinants of a Civil Society 3-1 Explain the determinants of a civil society Have you ever stopped to think about the social glue that binds society together? That is, what factors keep people and organizations from running amok and doing harm, and what factors create order in a society like ours? The answer lies in social control, defined as any means used to maintain behavioral norms and regulate conflict. Behavioral norms are standards of proper or acceptable behavior. Social control is part of your life at every level, from your family to your local community, to the nation, to the global civilization. Several modes of social control are important to marketing: Ethics: Ethics are the moral principles or values that generally govern the conduct of an individual or a group. Ethical rules and guidelines, along with customs and traditions, provide principles of right action. Laws: Often, ethical rules and guidelines are codified into law. Laws governments create are then enforced by governmental authority. This process is how the dictum “Thou shall not steal” has become part of formal law throughout the land. Law, however, is not a perfect mechanism for ensuring good corporate and employee behavior. Laws often address only the lowest common denominator of socially acceptable behavior. In other words, just because something is legal does not mean that it is ethical. For example, Texas Pete is a hot sauce sold in grocery stores across the country. The packaging for Texas Pete features a lone star, just as the Texas state flag does, and a cowboy holding a lasso. The packaging, along with the name of the product, seems to indicate that the product is made in the state of Texas, or that it is at least made from ingredients sourced in Texas. Texas Pete, however, is produced by TW Garner Foods Company, a company headquartered in North Carolina, more than 800 miles from Texas. A class action lawsuit was filed against the company for false advertising. The lawsuit claimed that consumers were paying a premium price based on their belief that the product originated in Texas, which has a reputation for spicy food. Texas Pete does not explicitly state that the product is manufactured in Texas and actually lists TW Garner Foods’ North Carolina address on the bottle, but the name of the product and the packaging certainly suggest that it is a genuine Texas-based product and could be misleading to consumers. While this presentation is technically legal, is this ethical? What’s your opinion? Here’s another example: In every state, littering is a problem—and has been for many years. Threats of fines and even jail time are shrugged off as people toss food wrappers, plastic straws and cups, and everything else imaginable out the car window. Many companies are implementing new policies to try and curtail the negative effects of littering. For example, Starbucks in California no longer automatically gives straws and plastic cutlery to customers, but, rather, will only provide these items when customers specifically request them. Nicole Glass Photography/Shutterstock.com Formal and Informal Groups: Businesses, professional organizations (such as the American Marketing Association and the American Medical Association), and clubs (such as Shriners and Ducks Unlimited) all have codes of conduct. These codes prescribe acceptable and desired behaviors for their members. Self-Regulation: Self-regulation involves the voluntary acceptance of standards established by nongovernmental entities, such as the American Association of Advertising Agencies (AAAA) or the National Association of Manufacturers. The AAAA has a self-regulation arm that deals with deceptive advertising. Other associations have regulations relating to child labor, environmental issues, conservation, and a host of other issues. The Media: In an open, democratic society, the media play a key role in informing the public about the actions of individuals and organizations—both good and bad. Laundress, a luxury laundry detergent brand that claims to be better for you and better for the environment, came under fire after issuing a safety notice for almost all of its products. The company released the notice on its social media accounts but provided very little information about the reason for the notice. It was later revealed that the majority of the products the brand manufactured between January 2021 and September 2022 contained heightened levels of bacteria that were causing severe skin rashes and other physical ailments. Many major media outlets, including The New York Times and USA Today, published articles to inform the public of this safety notice and the product recall that eventually followed. An Active Civil Society: An informed and engaged society can help mold individual and corporate ethics, as well as socially responsible behavior. Research reveals that 56 percent of U.S. consumers stop buying from companies they believe are unethical. In the United Kingdom, 53 percent of consumers reported that they would completely stop buying from a brand accused of sourcing from unethical suppliers. manufactured between January 2021 and September 2022 contained heightened levels of bacteria that were causing severe skin rashes and other physical ailments. Many major media outlets, including The New York Times and USA Today, published articles to inform the public of this safety notice and the product recall that eventually followed. An Active Civil Society: An informed and engaged society can help mold individual and corporate ethics, as well as socially responsible behavior. Research reveals that 56 percent of U.S. consumers stop buying from companies they believe are unethical. In the United Kingdom, 53 percent of consumers reported that they would completely stop buying from a brand accused of sourcing from unethical suppliers. 3-2a. Ethical Theories People usually base their individual choice of ethical theory on their life experiences. The following are some of the ethical theories that apply to marketing. Deontology The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma. This theory means that a person will follow their obligations to another individual or society because upholding one’s duty is considered ethically correct. For instance, a deontologist will always keep their promises to a friend and follow the law. A person who follows this theory will produce very consistent decisions because those decisions will be based on the individual’s set duties. Deontological theory is not necessarily concerned with the welfare of others. For example, suppose a salesperson has decided that it is their ethical duty (and very practical) to always be on time for meetings with clients. Today they are running late. How are they supposed to drive? Is the deontologist supposed to speed, breaking the law to uphold their duty to society, or is the deontologist supposed to arrive at their meeting late, breaking their duty to be on time? This scenario of conflicting obligations does not lead us to a clear, ethically correct resolution, nor does it protect the welfare of others from the deontologist’s decision. Utilitarianism The utilitarian ethical theory is founded on the ability to predict the consequences of an action. To a utilitarian, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the ethically correct choice. One benefit of this ethical theory is that the utilitarian can compare similar predicted solutions and use a point system to determine which choice is more beneficial for more people. This point system provides a logical and rational argument for each decision and allows a person to use it on a case-by-case basis. There are two types of utilitarianism: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism adheres exactly to the definition of utilitarianism as just described. In act utilitarianism, a person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or societal constraints like laws. Rule utilitarianism, however, considers the law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means available. Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and doing good at the same time. As is true of all ethical theories, however, both act and rule utilitarianism contain numerous flaws. Inherent in both are the flaws associated with predicting the future. Although people can use their life experiences to attempt to predict outcomes, no human being can be certain that their predictions will come true. This uncertainty can lead to unexpected results, making the utilitarian look unethical as time passes because their choice did not benefit the most people, as they had predicted. Another assumption a utilitarian must make is that they can compare the various types of consequences against each other on a similar scale. However, comparing material gains such as money against intangible gains such as happiness is impossible because their qualities differ so greatly. Casuist The casuist ethical theory compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical dilemmas and their outcomes. This theory allows one to determine the severity of the situation and to create the best possible solution according to others’ experiences. Usually, one will find examples that represent the extremes of the situation so that a compromise can be reached to include the wisdom gained from the previous situations. One drawback to this ethical theory is that there may not be a set of similar examples for a given ethical dilemma. Perhaps that which is controversial and ethically questionable is new and unexpected. Along the same line of thinking, this theory assumes that the results of the current ethical dilemma will be similar to the results in the examples. This assumption may not be true and would greatly hinder the effectiveness of applying this ethical theory. Moral Relativism Moral relativism is a belief in time-and-place ethics, that is, the truth of a moral judgment is relative to the judging person or group. According to a moral relativist, for example, stealing is not always wrong—if you are a parent and your child is starving, stealing a loaf of bread is ethically correct. The proper resolution to ethical dilemmas is based on weighing the competing factors at the moment and then deciding to take the lesser of the evils as the resolution. Moral relativists do not believe in absolute rules. Their beliefs center on the pressure of the moment and whether the pressure justifies the action taken. Virtue Ethics Aristotle and Plato taught that solving ethical dilemmas requires training—that individuals solve ethical dilemmas when they develop and nurture a set of virtues. A virtue is a character trait valued as being good. Aristotle taught the importance of cultivating virtue in his students and then having them solve ethical dilemmas using those virtues once they had become an integral part of his students’ being through their virtue training. Some modern philosophers have embraced this notion of virtue and have developed lists of what constitutes a virtuous businessperson. Some common virtues for businesspeople are self-discipline, friendliness, caring, courage, compassion, trust, responsibility, honesty, determination, enthusiasm, and humility. You may see other lists of virtues that are longer or shorter, but here is a good start for core business virtues. 3-3. Ethical Behavior in Business 3-3 Describe ethical behavior in business Depending on which, if any, ethical theory a businessperson has accepted and uses in their daily conduct, the action they take may vary. For example, faced with bribing a foreign official to get a critically needed contract or shutting down a factory and laying off a thousand workers, a person following a deontology strategy would not pay the bribe. Why? A deontologist always follows the law. However, a moral relativist would probably pay the bribe. While the boundaries of what is legal and what is not are often fairly clear (e.g., do not run a red light, do not steal money from a bank, and do not kill anyone), the boundaries of ethical decision making are predicated on which ethical theory one is following. The law typically relies on juries to determine if an act is legal or illegal. Society determines whether an action is ethical or unethical. In 2022, Oracle, an information technology company, was forced to pay $23 million to settle charges of violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). The U.S. Department of Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) allege that subsidiaries of the company in India, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates used discount schemes and sham marketing reimbursements to finance funds that were then used to bribe foreign officials. Michael Egbert, corporate communications VP for Oracle, stated that “The conduct outlined by the SEC is contrary to our core values and clear policies, and if we identify such behavior, we will take appropriate action.” Morals are the rules people develop as a result of cultural values and norms. Culture is a socializing force that dictates what is right and wrong. Moral standards may also reflect the laws and regulations that affect social and economic behavior. Thus, morals can be considered a foundation of ethical behavior. Morals are usually characterized as good or bad. “Good” and “bad” have many different connotations. One such connotation is “effective” and “ineffective.” A good salesperson makes or exceeds the assigned quota. If the salesperson sells a new computer system or an OLED TV to a disadvantaged consumer—knowing full well that the person cannot keep up the monthly payments—is that still a good salesperson? What if the sale enables the salesperson to exceed their quota? “Good” and “bad” can also refer to “conforming” and “deviant” behaviors. A doctor who runs large ads offering discounts on open-heart surgery would be considered bad, or unprofessional, because they are not conforming to the norms of the medical profession. “Good” and “bad” also express the distinction between law-abiding and criminal behavior. And, finally, different religions define “good” and “bad” in markedly different ways. A Muslim who eats pork are considered bad by other Muslims, for example. Religion is just one of the many factors that affect a businessperson’s ethics. Academic researchers have examined how consumers react to the trade-offs between highly competent but less moral service providers and less competent but highly moral service providers. Their study found that consumers valued competence more than morality. In other words, purchasers of services want someone who can do the job right . . . even if that person might be a bit shady. For example, a house-painting company that does excellent work but has had some legal problems in the past would be preferred over a mediocre painting company that has never had complaints or legal problems. 3-3a. Morality and Business Ethics Today’s business ethics consist of a subset of major life values learned since birth. The values businesspeople use to make decisions have been acquired through family, educational, and religious institutions. Ethical values are situation specific and time oriented. Everyone must have an ethical base that applies to conduct in the business world and personal life. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to examine the consequences of a particular act. Who is helped or hurt? How long do the consequences last? What actions produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people? A second approach stresses the importance of rules. Rules come in the form of customs, laws, professional standards, and common sense. “Always treat others as you would like to be treated” is an example of a rule. 3-3a. Morality and Business Ethics Today’s business ethics consist of a subset of major life values learned since birth. The values businesspeople use to make decisions have been acquired through family, educational, and religious institutions. Ethical values are situation specific and time oriented. Everyone must have an ethical base that applies to conduct in the business world and personal life. One approach to developing a personal set of ethics is to examine the consequences of a particular act. Who is helped or hurt? How long do the consequences last? What actions produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people? A second approach stresses the importance of rules. Rules come in the form of customs, laws, professional standards, and common sense. “Always treat others as you would like to be treated” is an example of a rule. 3-3c. Ethical Guidelines and Training In recent years, many organizations have become more interested in ethical issues. Yet interest and action are not always the same thing. Although some companies are now appointing a Chief Ethics Officer (sometimes called a Chief Compliance Officer), this role is still not present at many companies. It is very common, however, for companies of various sizes to develop a code of ethics as a guideline to help marketing managers and other employees make better decisions. Creating ethics guidelines has several advantages as follows: A code of ethics helps employees identify what their firm recognizes as acceptable business practices. A code of ethics can be an effective internal control of behavior, which is more desirable than external controls, such as government regulation. A written code helps employees avoid confusion when determining whether their decisions are ethical. The process of formulating the code of ethics facilitates discussion among employees about what is right and wrong and ultimately leads to better decisions. Ethics training is an effective way to help employees put good ethics into practice. The Ethics & Compliance Initiative’s State of Ethics and Compliance in the Workplace Report found that 84 percent of employees who work for a company with a strong ethics and compliance program perceived their organization as having a strong ethical culture. Comparatively, only 13 percent of employees working for an organization classified as having an underdeveloped ethics and compliance program felt that their organization had a strong ethical culture. Strong ethical cultures give employees the appropriate guidance to handle situations involving potential wrongdoing and lead to lower rates of misconduct. Still, simply giving employees a long list of dos and don’ts does not really help employees navigate the gray areas or adapt to a changing world market. In Carson City, Nevada, all governmental lobbyists are required to attend a course on ethics and policy before they can meet with lawmakers. The training outlines exactly how and when lobbyists are allowed to interact with lawmakers and how to report any money they spend. A clear understanding of ethical expectations is essential to an industry like lobbying, where illicit—often illegal—actions are taken to promote individual causes. Because artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming so pervasive in marketing interactions with consumers, it must also be taught about ethical decision making. Already Microsoft, Adobe, and IBM, along with smaller firms and start-ups, are developing ethical guidelines and best practices for their AI use. Type “gymnast” into Google’s image search and the vast majority of the top results are female, as are the results for “nurse.” The term “parents” shows almost exclusively heterosexual couples. The results of these searches are driven by AI, which isn’t explicitly taught to discriminate. Rather, these prejudices are the result of the data submitted to the AI algorithm. “There is increasing concern that algorithms used by modern AI systems produce discriminatory outputs, presumably because they are trained on data in which societal biases are embedded,” notes Madalina Vlasceanu, an Assistant Professor of Psychology at New York University, whose research explores biases in internet search algorithms and the potential impact of these biased search results on society. The Most Ethical Companies Each year, Ethisphere magazine (targeted toward top management and focused on ethical leadership) examines more than 5,000 companies in 30 separate industries, seeking the world’s most ethical companies. It then lists the top 100. The magazine uses a rigorous format to identify true ethical leadership. A few of the selected winners are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Selected Winners of the World’s Most Ethical Companies Company Industry Country 3M Industrial manufacturing USA Accenture Consulting Services Ireland Aflac Accident and life insurance USA Apple Technology USA Colgate-Palmolive Consumer products USA Dell Technology USA EDP Energy and utilities Portugal General Motors Company Automotive USA Illy Food, beverages, and agriculture Italy Kao Health and beauty Japan L’Oreal Health and beauty France Mastercard Payment Services USA Natura Health and beauty Brazil Parsons Engineering and design USA Salesforce Application software USA U.S. Bank Banks USA Workday Software & Services USA Source: “The 2022 World’s Most Ethical Companies Honorees List,” https://worldsmostethicalcompanies.com/honorees/ (accessed January 30, 2023).