Brief history of infancy research

Infancy (0–1 year)

Week 3 - Infancy

INFANCY

Regulation of Financial Services: Sources of Financial Instability

Lesson 17 – Installing/Upgrading Operating Systems (OSs)

NUTRITION - Chapter 15: Nutrition from Infancy Through Adolescence

Philosophy Exam 1 ⸻ Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalysis) 1. Id – Ego – Superego Freud explains personality as a system of three interacting structures that are in constant conflict. * Id The id is entirely unconscious and represents instinctual drives such as aggression, hunger, and sexual desire. It operates on the pleasure principle, meaning it demands immediate satisfaction without considering reality, morality, or consequences. It is irrational and purely driven by biological impulses. * Ego The ego develops to mediate between the id and external reality. It operates on the reality principle, meaning it tries to satisfy instinctual desires in realistic and socially acceptable ways. It uses reasoning, planning, and delayed gratification. It is partly conscious and responsible for decision-making. * Superego The superego represents internalized moral values and social rules learned from parents and society. It judges behaviour and produces feelings of guilt or pride depending on whether actions align with moral standards. It often conflicts with the id by imposing strict moral constraints. Key idea: personality results from the continuous tension between instinct (id), reality (ego), and morality (superego). ⸻ 2. Defence Mechanisms Defence mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflict between the id, superego, and reality. They distort perception in order to protect the individual from psychological discomfort. * Repression Unacceptable thoughts or memories are pushed into the unconscious and become inaccessible, although they may still influence behaviour indirectly. * Denial The individual refuses to accept a painful or threatening reality. * Projection The person attributes their own unacceptable feelings or impulses to others. * Displacement Emotional impulses are redirected from the original source to a safer target. * Rationalization The individual creates false but logical explanations for behaviour in order to avoid guilt or anxiety. * Reaction Formation An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite behaviour. * Regression Under stress, the individual returns to earlier, more childish patterns of behaviour. * Sublimation Unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable or productive activities. * Intellectualization Emotional situations are dealt with through abstract or logical thinking to avoid confronting feelings. * Compensation The individual develops strengths in one area to make up for weaknesses in another. * Identification The person adopts the traits or behaviours of another individual to reduce anxiety or increase self-esteem. * Undoing The person attempts to symbolically cancel out unacceptable thoughts or actions through corrective behaviour. Key idea: defence mechanisms are automatic, unconscious, and protect the ego by distorting reality. ⸻ 3. Psychosexual Stages Freud argues that personality develops through stages where psychic energy (libido) is focused on different parts of the body. Fixation at a stage can influence adult personality. * Oral stage (0–1): pleasure through feeding; fixation may lead to dependence or oral habits. * Anal stage (1–3): focus on control and toilet training; fixation may lead to orderliness or messiness. * Phallic stage (3–6): development of gender identity and early moral awareness; family dynamics are central. * Latency stage (6–puberty): sexual energy is dormant; focus on learning and social development. * Genital stage (puberty onward): mature sexuality and adult relationships. Key idea: early childhood experiences strongly shape adult personality. ⸻ René Descartes 1. Dualism Descartes argues that reality is composed of two fundamentally different substances: * Mind (res cogitans): non-physical substance responsible for thinking, consciousness, reasoning, and doubt. * Body (res extensa): physical substance that occupies space and follows mechanical laws. Although distinct, mind and body interact, creating the mind–body problem of how two different substances can influence each other. Key idea: humans are composed of both mental and physical substances that are fundamentally different. ⸻ 2. Rationalism Rationalism is the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, more reliable than sensory experience. Descartes argues that the senses can deceive us through illusions and dreams, so knowledge must be based on clear and distinct ideas produced by reason. He uses methodic doubt, systematically doubting all uncertain beliefs until reaching something absolutely certain. Key idea: reliable knowledge must come from reason rather than the senses. ⸻ 3. Cogito: “I think therefore I am” Descartes establishes that even radical doubt proves existence. If he is doubting, he must be thinking; if he is thinking, he must exist as a thinking being. Key idea: the act of thinking guarantees the existence of the self. ⸻ Plato 1. Ideal Society Plato’s political philosophy divides society into three classes corresponding to parts of the human soul: * Rulers (philosopher-kings): guided by reason and wisdom; they govern society. * Guardians: guided by courage; they protect and defend the state. * Producers: guided by desire; they provide material goods and services. Justice occurs when each class performs its proper function without interfering in the roles of others. Key idea: social justice is harmony through specialization and proper role distribution. ⸻ 2. Theory of Forms Plato distinguishes between two levels of reality: * The physical world: constantly changing, imperfect, and perceived through the senses. * The world of Forms: eternal, perfect, and unchanging essences such as Beauty, Justice, and Equality. Physical objects are imperfect copies of these perfect Forms. Key idea: true knowledge is knowledge of eternal Forms, not sensory appearances. ⸻ 3. Allegory of the Cave Plato describes prisoners chained in a cave who see only shadows and believe them to be reality. One prisoner escapes and discovers the real world illuminated by the sun, which represents truth. When he returns, the others reject him. Key idea: education is the process of moving from illusion to truth, which is difficult and often resisted. ⸻ Francis Bacon 1. Four Idols of the Mind Bacon identifies four sources of systematic error in human thinking: * Idols of the Tribe: universal human biases in perception and reasoning. * Idols of the Cave: individual biases shaped by personal experience and education. * Idols of the Marketplace: errors caused by language and communication. * Idols of the Theatre: blind acceptance of philosophical systems and traditions. Key idea: human reasoning is naturally flawed and must be corrected through scientific method. ⸻ 2. Empiricism Empiricism is the theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience and observation. Bacon argues that scientific knowledge must be based on experimentation, data collection, and systematic observation rather than pure reasoning. Key idea: knowledge is grounded in experience, not abstract speculation. ⸻ 3. Induction vs Deduction Induction is reasoning from specific observations to general laws. Deduction is reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions. Bacon emphasizes induction as the foundation of scientific knowledge because it is based on empirical evidence. Key idea: science progresses by building general laws from observed facts. ⸻ Friedrich Nietzsche 1. “God is Dead” Nietzsche argues that modern science and secular thinking have undermined the authority of traditional religion as a source of meaning and morality. This leads to a cultural crisis in which old values collapse without being replaced. Key idea: the loss of religious authority creates a crisis of meaning. ⸻ 2. Nihilism Passive nihilism refers to despair and the belief that life has no meaning. Active nihilism refers to the rejection of old values in order to create new ones. Key idea: nihilism represents both the breakdown of meaning and the possibility of creating new values. ⸻ 3. Übermensch The Übermensch is the ideal individual who creates their own values, rejects conformity, embraces life fully, and overcomes traditional moral systems. Key idea: humans must move beyond inherited values and become creators of meaning. ⸻ Charles Darwin 1. Natural Selection Evolution occurs through natural selection. Individuals within a species vary, and those with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. Over time, these traits become more common in the population. Key idea: evolution is driven by survival advantage rather than purposeful design. ⸻ 2. Morality (Evolutionary view) Darwin argues that morality is not divine but evolved through natural processes. Humans developed social instincts such as empathy and cooperation because these traits improved survival within groups. Key idea: morality is a product of biological and social evolution

Types of Installations

Causes of Instability 1625-42

1. Compulsive (Adj - C1): Có tính cưỡng bách (không kiểm soát được). Đồng nghĩa: Uncontrollable, obsessive. Trái nghĩa: Voluntary, deliberate. 2. Digital detox (Collocation - B2): Giải độc kỹ thuật số (ngưng dùng thiết bị điện tử). Đồng nghĩa: Tech break, offline period. Trái nghĩa: Constant connectivity. 3. Dopamine hit (Thuật ngữ - C2): Sự giải phóng dopamine (tạo cảm giác hưng phấn tức thời). Đồng nghĩa: Instant gratification, rush. Trái nghĩa: Long-term satisfaction. 4. Cognitive load (Thuật ngữ - C2): Tải trọng nhận thức (mức độ hoạt động của trí não). Đồng nghĩa: Mental effort. Trái nghĩa: Mental relaxation. 5. Impulse control (Collocation - C1): Kiểm soát xung động. Đồng nghĩa: Self-restraint, willpower. Trái nghĩa: Recklessness, indulgence. 6. Ubiquity (Noun - C2): Sự phổ biến ở khắp mọi nơi. Đồng nghĩa: Omnipresence, pervasiveness. Trái nghĩa: Rarity, scarcity. 7. Detrimental (Adj - C1): Có hại, bất lợi. Đồng nghĩa: Harmful, damaging. Trái nghĩa: Beneficial, helpful. 8. Intermittent reinforcement (Thuật ngữ - C2): Củng cố ngắt quãng (cơ chế gây nghiện trong thông báo/mạng xã hội). Đồng nghĩa: Random rewards. Trái nghĩa: Continuous reinforcement. 9. Sedentary (Adj - C1): Thụ động, ít vận động. Đồng nghĩa: Inactive, stationary. Trái nghĩa: Active, mobile. 10. Attention span (Collocation - B2): Khoảng tập trung. Đồng nghĩa: Concentration duration. Trái nghĩa: Distractibility. 11. Aggregator (Noun - C1): Bộ thu thập/tổng hợp thông tin. Đồng nghĩa: Collector, synthesizer. Trái nghĩa: Disseminator. 12. Mitigate (Verb - C1): Giảm nhẹ, làm dịu bớt (tác động tiêu cực). Đồng nghĩa: Alleviate, lessen. Trái nghĩa: Exacerbate, aggravate. 13. Psychological dependency (Collocation - C2): Sự lệ thuộc vào tâm lý. Đồng nghĩa: Mental addiction. Trái nghĩa: Independence, autonomy. 14. Preoccupation (Noun - C1): Sự bận tâm, ám ảnh. Đồng nghĩa: Obsession, fixation. Trái nghĩa: Indifference, apathy. 15. Incessant (Adj - C2): Không ngừng, liên miên (thường gây khó chịu). Đồng nghĩa: Constant, never-ending. Trái nghĩa: Occasional, intermittent. 16. Proximity (Noun - C1): Sự gần gũi (về khoảng cách). Đồng nghĩa: Closeness, nearness. Trái nghĩa: Distance, remoteness. 17. Curb (Verb - B2): Kiềm chế, nén lại. Đồng nghĩa: Restrain, inhibit. Trái nghĩa: Release, encourage. 18. Mindfulness (Noun - B2): Sự chánh niệm/tỉnh thức. Đồng nghĩa: Awareness, attentiveness. Trái nghĩa: Absent-mindedness. 19. Disruptive (Adj - B2): Gây gián đoạn, phiền phức. Đồng nghĩa: Disturbing, unsettling. Trái nghĩa: Soothing, organizing. 20. Nuanced (Adj - C2): Sắc thái, tinh tế (nhiều khía cạnh nhỏ). Đồng nghĩa: Subtle, complex. Trái nghĩa: Simple, oversimplified. 21. Abstinence (Noun - C2): Sự kiêng khem, tiết chế. Đồng nghĩa: Refraining, avoidance. Trái nghĩa: Indulgence, excess. 22. Withdrawal symptoms (Collocation - C1): Các triệu chứng cai nghiện. Đồng nghĩa: Detox reactions. Trái nghĩa: Comfort, stability. 23. Incorporate (Verb - B2): Kết hợp, tích hợp vào (thói quen). Đồng nghĩa: Integrate, include. Trái nghĩa: Exclude, separate. 24. Social alienation (Collocation - C2): Sự xa lánh xã hội. Đồng nghĩa: Isolation, estrangement. Trái nghĩa: Social integration. 25. Default setting (Collocation - B2): Thiết lập mặc định. Đồng nghĩa: Pre-set configuration

Lecture 10 – DNA repair pathways and genetic instability

infancy part 2

👑 Fiche de Révision : L’Affirmation de l’État (XVIe-XVIIe) ​Problématique : Comment l’autorité royale et l’État se renforcent-ils pour transformer la monarchie en un régime absolu entre le XVIe et le XVIIe siècle ? ​I. Un État qui unifie et contrôle son territoire ​1. L'extension et la fortification ​Agrandissement : Le domaine royal s'étend par mariages (Bretagne en 1532), héritages (Navarre avec Henri IV) et conquêtes militaires (Roussillon, Alsace, Franche-Comté sous Louis XIV). ​La "Ceinture de Fer" : Sébastien Vauban, ingénieur de Louis XIV, sécurise les frontières en construisant ou rénovant 150 forteresses (ex: Besançon, Briançon) capables de résister à l'artillerie moderne. ​2. Modernisation administrative ​Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539) : François Ier impose le français (langue du roi) dans tous les actes officiels au détriment des patois. Il crée l'ancêtre de l'état civil en obligeant les curés à tenir des registres de baptêmes, mariages et sépultures. ​Aménagements : L'État maîtrise son territoire par de grands travaux (Canal du Midi par Paul Riquet, assèchement de marais, routes pavées avec relais de poste) et par la cartographie (famille Cassini). ​II. L’instrument de la puissance : Guerre, Impôt et Économie ​1. La révolution militaire ​La guerre est un monopole de l'État. Le roi se met en scène comme un chef victorieux. ​Les effectifs explosent : de 40 000 hommes au XVIe siècle à 450 000 sous Louis XIV. ​L'armée se professionnalise et la conscription (service obligatoire) apparaît via le tirage au sort dans les villages. ​2. Une fiscalité au service de l'État ​Pour financer les guerres, le roi augmente les impôts existants (Taille, Gabelle) et en crée de nouveaux théoriquement payables par tous (Capitation, Vingtième). ​Centralisation financière : Le roi décide seul. Les États généraux (représentants des 3 ordres) ne sont plus convoqués entre 1614 et 1789. ​3. Le Colbertisme (Mercantilisme) ​Jean-Baptiste Colbert, ministre de Louis XIV, transforme l'économie en outil politique : ​Accumulation de richesse : La puissance d'un État dépend de ses réserves d'or et d'argent. ​Manufactures royales : Création d'entreprises d'État (Gobelins pour les tapisseries, Saint-Gobain pour les miroirs) pour produire du luxe en France et éviter les importations. ​Commerce et Marine : Création de Compagnies de commerce (Indes) et construction d'arsenaux (Brest, Toulon) pour dominer les mers. Protectionnisme : Taxes élevées sur les produits étrangers et baisse des taxes pour l'exportation des produits français. ​III. Un pouvoir absolu qui s’impose à tous ​1. La Monarchie de droit divin ​Théorisation : Jean Bodin définit la souveraineté comme indivisible. Bossuet affirme que le roi ne tient son pouvoir que de Dieu : il n'a de comptes à rendre à personne sur terre. ​Le Sacre : À Reims, le roi reçoit les regalia (main de justice, couronne, sceptre). Il est perçu comme un "roi thaumaturge" (guérisseur des écrouelles). ​2. Versailles : Domestiquer la noblesse ​Marqué par la Fronde (révolte des nobles durant sa minorité), Louis XIV installe sa cour à Versailles en 1682. ​Il attire les grands seigneurs à la cour pour les surveiller. La noblesse est soumise à l'étiquette (règles strictes de vie à la cour) et dépend des faveurs du roi (pensions, titres). ​3. L'unification religieuse ​Henri IV : Pacifie le royaume avec l'Édit de Nantes (1598) qui tolère les protestants. ​Louis XIV : Au nom de l'unité ("un roi, une foi, une loi"), il révoque l'édit de Nantes par l'Édit de Fontainebleau (1685). ​Conséquences : Persécutions (dragonnades), révoltes (Camisards) et exil massif de 200 000 protestants (le "Refuge"). ​IV. Les limites à l’absolutisme ​Le pouvoir "absolu" n'est pas une tyrannie totale, il rencontre des limites : ​Lois Fondamentales : Le roi doit respecter des règles coutumières (ex: Loi salique excluant les femmes du trône, inaliénabilité du domaine royal). ​Limites géographiques : L'immensité du royaume et la lenteur des transports freinent l'application immédiate des ordres. ​Résistances : Le droit de remontrance des parlements (critique des lois) et les révoltes populaires contre les impôts (ex: Nu-pieds en 1639). ​Régicides : Les assassinats d'Henri III (1589) et Henri IV (1610) montrent que la personne physique du roi reste vulnérable. ​🏗️ Colbert : L’économie comme arme de puissance ​Jean-Baptiste Colbert, ministre de Louis XIV pendant plus de 20 ans, est l'architecte du mercantilisme à la française, que l'on appelle aussi le colbertisme. Son idée centrale est simple : la puissance d'un roi se mesure à l'or et à l'argent qu'il possède dans ses caisses. Pour enrichir la France, il intervient dans trois domaines clés. ​1. Le développement industriel : Les Manufactures ​Pour éviter que l'argent des Français ne soit dépensé à l'étranger, Colbert décide que la France doit tout produire elle-même, surtout les produits de luxe. Il crée des manufactures royales, comme les Gobelins (tapisseries) ou Saint-Gobain (miroirs et glaces). Ces entreprises reçoivent des aides de l'État et des monopoles de fabrication. L'objectif est de concurrencer les produits anglais ou vénitiens et de faire rayonner le savoir-faire français. ​2. Le commerce maritime et les Compagnies ​Pour Colbert, la France doit dominer le commerce mondial. Il crée des Compagnies de Commerce (comme la Compagnie des Indes) qui ont l'exclusivité des échanges avec les colonies. Pour protéger ces navires de commerce, il développe massivement la Marine de guerre et fonde de grands arsenaux militaires à Brest, Toulon et Rochefort. ​3. Le protectionnisme et les infrastructures ​Pour forcer les Français à acheter local, Colbert met en place des tarifs douaniers très élevés : les produits importés de l'étranger deviennent extrêmement chers. En parallèle, il modernise le pays pour faciliter la circulation des marchandises en faisant construire des routes et des canaux, comme le célèbre Canal du Midi. ​📊 Le bilan de cette politique ​Le bilan de Colbert est contrasté. D'un côté, il a réussi à faire de la France une référence mondiale pour le luxe et a doté le pays d'infrastructures solides. De l'autre, son système a des limites : il a négligé l'agriculture (qui faisait vivre 80% des Français) et les guerres incessantes de Louis XIV ont fini par vider les caisses que Colbert s'efforçait de remplir. ​En résumé pour ton cours : Colbert a transformé l'économie en un outil de service pour l'État. Grâce à lui, l'argent n'est plus seulement une richesse, c'est un moyen de financer la gloire du Roi-Soleil et ses armées. ​👑 Le Pouvoir Royal et l'Absolutisme ​Monarchie absolue : Régime politique dans lequel le roi concentre l'ensemble des pouvoirs (législatif, exécutif, judiciaire) et gouverne presque sans contrôle. ​Monarchie de droit divin : Croyance selon laquelle le roi tient son pouvoir directement de Dieu, ce qui rend son autorité incontestable. ​Souveraineté : Pouvoir suprême de donner et de casser la loi sans le consentement de quiconque (concept théorisé par Jean Bodin). ​Sacre : Cérémonie religieuse (généralement à Reims) par laquelle le roi est oint d'une huile sainte, ce qui lui donne un caractère sacré et légitime son pouvoir. ​Regalia : Ensemble des objets symboliques remis au roi lors de son sacre (couronne, sceptre, main de justice, épée) représentant ses différents pouvoirs. ​Lois fondamentales : Ensemble de coutumes et de règles non écrites que le roi doit respecter (ex : la loi salique qui interdit aux femmes de régner). ​🏛️ L'Administration et le Territoire Centralisation : Processus de renforcement du pouvoir central (le roi) dont les décisions s'appliquent sur tout le territoire, au détriment des pouvoirs locaux. ​Domaine royal : Ensemble des terres relevant directement de l'autorité du roi. ​Intendants : Commissaires nommés par le roi et envoyés dans les provinces (généralités) avec des pouvoirs de justice, police et finance pour faire appliquer la volonté royale. ​Parlement : Cour de justice chargée d'enregistrer les lois royales. Ils disposent d'un droit de remontrance (pouvoir donner leur avis ou critiquer une loi). ​États généraux : Assemblée des trois ordres du royaume (Clergé, Noblesse, Tiers-État) convoquée par le roi pour obtenir des conseils ou voter de nouveaux impôts. ​Ordonnance : Texte de loi royale couvrant plusieurs domaines et s'adressant à l'ensemble des sujets du royaume. ​Édit : Texte de loi royale consacré à un seul domaine ou à un groupe de personnes spécifique (ex : Édit de Nantes). ​💰 Économie et Fiscalité ​Mercantilisme : Doctrine économique qui considère que la puissance d'un État dépend de ses réserves d'or et d'argent. Elle prône l'augmentation des exportations et la réduction des importations. ​Colbertisme : Nom donné à l'application du mercantilisme en France par Colbert, passant par la création de manufactures et de compagnies de commerce. ​Manufacture : Entreprise concentrant un grand nombre de travailleurs, spécialisée dans la production de qualité (souvent luxe) et bénéficiant d'aides ou de monopoles de l'État. ​Protectionnisme : Politique économique visant à protéger la production nationale contre la concurrence étrangère en instaurant des taxes douanières élevées. ​Taille : Principal impôt direct payé au roi, dont la noblesse et le clergé sont exemptés. ​Gabelle : Impôt indirect très impopulaire prélevé sur la consommation du sel. ​🛡️ Guerre et Défense ​Arsenal : Établissement militaire d'État destiné à la construction, l'entretien et l'armement des navires de guerre (ex : Rochefort, Toulon). ​Ceinture de fer : Réseau de forteresses construites par Vauban aux frontières du royaume pour protéger le territoire contre les invasions. ​Corvée royale : Travail obligatoire non rémunéré imposé par le roi à ses sujets (souvent pour l'entretien des routes ou des fortifications). ​🎭 Vie à la Cour et Religion ​Étiquette : Ensemble de règles très strictes qui organisent la vie quotidienne des courtisans autour du roi, créant une hiérarchie et permettant de surveiller la noblesse. ​Thaumaturge : Qualité prêtée au roi de France, censé être capable de guérir des maladies (les écrouelles) par simple toucher

Unit 1: Psychology’s History and Approaches Big Idea: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This unit asks: Why do people think, feel, and behave the way they do, and how do psychologists study it? 1. Early Schools of Thought Structuralism Focused on breaking conscious experiences into smaller parts. Example: Describing every taste, smell, and feeling while eating pizza. Functionalism Focused on WHY behaviors and thoughts exist. Example: Fear exists because it helps humans survive danger. Connection: Structuralists asked “What are thoughts made of?” Functionalists asked “What purpose do thoughts serve?” 2. Major Psychological Perspectives Biological Perspective Behavior comes from the brain, genetics, and hormones. Example: Depression connected to serotonin levels. Behavioral Perspective Behavior is learned through rewards and punishments. Example: A dog learns tricks because it gets treats. Cognitive Perspective Focuses on thinking, memory, and problem-solving. Example: Why students remember some facts better than others. Humanistic Perspective Humans naturally strive for growth. Example: Trying to achieve goals and improve yourself. Psychodynamic Perspective Unconscious conflicts affect behavior. Example: Getting unusually angry because of hidden stress. Evolutionary Perspective Behaviors developed because they helped survival. Example: Humans naturally fearing dangerous animals. Sociocultural Perspective Behavior is shaped by culture and society. Example: Different cultures have different expectations for personal space. 3. Research Methods Experiment Used to determine cause and effect. Independent Variable What the researcher changes. Dependent Variable What the researcher measures. Example: Studying whether sleep affects test scores. * Amount of sleep = IV * Test score = DV Correlation Shows relationship between variables. Important: Correlation does NOT equal causation. Example: Ice cream sales and drowning both rise during summer. Random Assignment Participants randomly placed into groups. Helps reduce bias. Double-Blind Procedure Neither researchers nor participants know who receives treatment. Prevents expectations from affecting results. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves asking: * Which perspective best explains this behavior? * Which research method should be used? * Why doesn’t correlation prove causation? Example: A psychologist studies how rewards affect studying. → Behavioral perspective + experiment Unit 2: Biological Basis of Behavior Big Idea: Your brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics all shape behavior. The whole unit asks: How do your body and brain create thoughts, emotions, and behavior? 1. Nature vs. Nurture = Who You Are Main Idea: Your behavior comes from BOTH: * Nature = genetics/heredity * Nurture = environment and experiences Example: Someone may inherit anxiety tendencies but stressful experiences can make anxiety stronger. 2. Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain + spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Sympathetic Nervous System Activates during stress. Example: Heart racing before giving a speech. Parasympathetic Nervous System Calms the body afterward. 3. Neurotransmitters Dopamine Reward and pleasure. Example: Social media likes feel rewarding. Serotonin Mood and sleep. Low levels linked to depression. Acetylcholine Movement and memory. Linked to Alzheimer’s disease. GABA Calms nervous system. Low GABA linked to anxiety. 4. Brain Structures Frontal Lobe Decision-making and personality. Occipital Lobe Vision. Temporal Lobe Hearing and memory. Hippocampus Memory formation. Amygdala Fear and aggression. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student panicking before a test: * amygdala activates fear * sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate * adrenaline releases Unit 3: Sensation and Perception Big Idea: Sensation detects information. Perception interprets information. This unit asks: How does the brain create your experience of the world? 1. Sensation Absolute Threshold Smallest amount of stimulation needed to notice something. Example: Hearing a quiet text notification. Difference Threshold Smallest noticeable difference between stimuli. Example: Noticing the TV volume changed. Sensory Adaptation Becoming less aware of constant stimulation. Example: Not noticing your hoodie after wearing it awhile. 2. Vision Rods Help see in dim light. Cones Detect color. Blind Spot Area without receptors. 3. Hearing Frequency Determines pitch. Amplitude Determines loudness. 4. Perception Gestalt Principles The brain organizes pieces into meaningful wholes. Example: Seeing a complete logo even with missing parts. Depth Perception Ability to see distance in 3D. Example: Catching a volleyball. Perceptual Set Expectations affect perception. Example: Misreading a word because you expected something else. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The exam often gives optical illusions or perception scenarios. Example: A person stops noticing a strong smell after 10 minutes. → sensory adaptation Unit 4: Learning Big Idea: Behavior changes because of experience. This unit asks: How do humans and animals learn behaviors? 1. Classical Conditioning Learning through association. Pavlov’s Dogs Dogs learned to associate a bell with food. Unconditioned Stimulus Naturally causes response. Conditioned Stimulus Previously neutral stimulus causing learned response. Example: Feeling hungry when hearing the microwave beep. 2. Operant Conditioning Learning through rewards and punishments. Positive Reinforcement Adding something good to increase behavior. Example: Getting money for good grades. Negative Reinforcement Removing something unpleasant. Example: Seatbelt alarm stopping. Punishment Decreases behavior. 3. Observational Learning Learning by watching others. Example: Kids copying influencers online. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves reinforcement examples. Example: A student studies harder after praise from parents. → positive reinforcement Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Big Idea: Humans think, remember, solve problems, and use language. This unit asks: How does the mind process information? 1. Memory Process Encoding Getting information into memory. Storage Keeping information over time. Retrieval Getting information back. 2. Types of Memory Sensory Memory Very brief memory. Short-Term Memory Temporary limited storage. Long-Term Memory Relatively permanent storage. Working Memory Actively using information. Example: Doing math in your head. 3. Forgetting Proactive Interference Old information disrupts new information. Retroactive Interference New information disrupts old information. Example: Forgetting old password after learning a new one. 4. Problem Solving Algorithm Step-by-step method. Heuristic Mental shortcut. Confirmation Bias Looking for information supporting beliefs. Example: Only reading opinions you already agree with. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student mixes up Spanish vocabulary from last year with current vocabulary. → proactive interference Unit 6: Developmental Psychology Big Idea: Humans develop physically, mentally, and socially across life. This unit asks: How do people change from infancy through adulthood? 1. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage Babies learn through senses and actions. Object Permanence Understanding objects still exist when hidden. Example: Babies searching for hidden toys. Preoperational Stage Children use language but think egocentrically. Egocentrism Difficulty understanding another perspective. Example: A child assuming everyone sees exactly what they see. Concrete Operational Stage Logical thinking develops. Formal Operational Stage Abstract thinking develops. Example: Thinking about hypothetical situations. 2. Attachment Strong emotional bond with caregivers. Secure Attachment Healthy trust and comfort. 3. Parenting Styles Authoritative Strict but supportive. Usually healthiest. Authoritarian Strict with little warmth. Permissive Warm but few rules. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A teenager exploring identity and future goals. → Erikson’s identity vs role confusion stage Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality Big Idea: Motivation drives behavior, emotions affect actions, and personality shapes how people interact. 1. Motivation Drive-Reduction Theory People act to reduce discomfort. Example: Eating when hungry. Maslow’s Hierarchy Basic needs come before higher goals. Example: Someone struggling financially may focus on survival before self-esteem. 2. Emotion Theories James-Lange Theory Physical response first. Example: Heart races THEN fear is felt. Cannon-Bard Theory Emotion and physical response happen together. Schachter Two-Factor Theory Emotion depends on physical arousal plus interpretation. 3. Personality Trait Theory Personality made of stable characteristics. Big Five Traits * openness * conscientiousness * extraversion * agreeableness * neuroticism BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student interpreting sweaty palms before a game as excitement. → Schachter two-factor theory Unit 8: Clinical Psychology Big Idea: Psychological disorders affect thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This unit asks: How are disorders identified and treated? 1. Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder Constant excessive worry. Phobias Irrational fears. OCD Obsessions and compulsions. 2. Mood Disorders Major Depressive Disorder Persistent sadness and loss of interest. Bipolar Disorder Extreme mood swings. 3. Schizophrenia Disordered thinking and perception. Hallucinations False sensory experiences. Delusions False beliefs. 4

D. Quotes - Family, Sex Instinct, Weaponry, Nature

Political Instability in China

Infancy and Childhood Social & Sexual Development

Week 6 - Counterfactual thinking and the First Instinct (Psych 133F)

Modern Civilizations — Semester 2 Exam Study Guide Exam Date: May 22 Format: Bubble Sheet Questions: 123 total • 50 Vocabulary/Matching • 50 Multiple Choice • 16 Map Skills • 7 Document-Based Questions ⸻ SECTION A — GEOGRAPHY SKILLS Key Vocabulary Cardinal Directions • North • South • East • West Shown on a compass rose. Intermediate Directions • Northeast • Northwest • Southeast • Southwest Latitude Imaginary lines that run east-west and measure distance north or south of the Equator. Longitude Imaginary lines that run north-south and measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. Projection A flat map representation of Earth. Scale Shows distance on a map. Distortion When map shapes, sizes, or distances are changed because Earth is round. ⸻ 5 Themes of Geography 1. Location Where a place is. 2. Place What a place is like. 3. Movement How people, goods, and ideas move. 4. Region An area with common features. 5. Human-Environment Interaction How people affect and adapt to the environment. ⸻ Continents & Oceans 7 Continents • North America • South America • Europe • Asia • Africa • Australia • Antarctica 5 Oceans • Pacific • Atlantic • Indian • Arctic • Southern ⸻ CHAPTER 23 — SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION & AGE OF EXPLORATION Section 1 — Scientific Revolution Key Vocabulary Geocentric Theory Earth is the center of the universe. Heliocentric Theory The sun is the center of the solar system. Elliptical Oval-shaped planetary orbits. Scientific Method Organized process of observation, testing, and experimentation. Scientific Rationalism Using reason and logic to understand the world. ⸻ Important People Galileo Galilei Used a telescope to support heliocentric theory. Isaac Newton Developed laws of motion and gravity. Nicolaus Copernicus Proposed heliocentric theory. René Descartes Believed truth comes through reason. Robert Hooke Studied cells using microscopes. Sir Francis Bacon Promoted experimentation and observation. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Educational ideas Muslim scholars adopted from India • Mathematics • Astronomy • Number system (including zero) How were cells discovered? Scientists used microscopes to observe tiny living structures. Who led the study of cells? Robert Hooke ⸻ Section 2 — The Age of Exploration Key Vocabulary Caravel Fast, maneuverable sailing ship used by explorers. Colony Land controlled by another country. Exploit To use resources for benefit or profit. Quinine Medicine used against malaria. Rivalry Competition between nations. Smallpox Deadly disease spread to Native Americans. ⸻ Important People & Places Christopher Columbus Sailed for Spain and reached the Americas in 1492. Columbian Exchange Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas. Dutch East India Company Controlled trade in Asia. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile Sponsored Columbus’s voyage. Prince Henry the Navigator Encouraged Portuguese exploration. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who was Prince Henry the Navigator? A Portuguese prince who funded exploration schools, maps, and voyages. Why was the Caravel important? • Faster ship • Easier to steer • Could sail against the wind • Allowed longer ocean voyages ⸻ Section 3 — European Empires Key Vocabulary Conquistador Spanish conqueror in the Americas. Plantation Large farm using forced labor. Racism Belief that one race is superior. Triangular Trade Trade route connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Middle Passage Brutal voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas. ⸻ Important People & Places Atahualpa Last Inca emperor defeated by Spain. Francisco Pizarro Conquered the Inca Empire. Hernán Cortés Conquered the Aztec Empire. Pedro Álvares Cabral Claimed Brazil for Portugal. Tenochtitlan Capital of the Aztec Empire. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Describe the invasion of Mexico • Hernán Cortés led Spanish conquistadors. • The Aztecs were led by Montezuma. • Spanish had guns, horses, steel weapons, and Native allies. • Smallpox weakened the Aztecs. Conditions of the Middle Passage • Crowded ships • Disease • Starvation • Abuse and death Achievements of Portugal • Explored African coast • Opened sea routes to Asia • Built trading empire ⸻ CHAPTER 24 — ENLIGHTENMENT & REVOLUTIONS Section 1 — The Age of Reason Key Vocabulary Absolute Monarch King or queen with total power. Divine Right Belief that rulers receive power from God. Natural Rights Basic rights all people are born with. Enlightened Despot Ruler who accepted Enlightenment ideas. Laissez-faire Government should not interfere in economy. Free Enterprise Businesses operate with little government control. Philosophe French Enlightenment thinker. ⸻ Important People John Locke Believed people have natural rights. Montesquieu Supported separation of powers. Voltaire Supported freedom of speech and religion. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Believed government should follow the will of the people. Mary Wollstonecraft Supported women’s rights and education. Adam Smith Wrote about free-market economics. Louis XIV Example of an absolute monarch. Catherine the Great Enlightened despot of Russia. Frederick the Great Enlightened ruler. Joseph II Made reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What group applied science ideas to government? The philosophes. Why did philosophes think justice systems were unfair? Punishments were cruel and laws treated social classes unequally. ⸻ Section 2 — Revolutions on Three Continents Key Vocabulary Bourgeoisie Middle class. Jacobins Radical French Revolution group. Declaration of Independence American colonies’ statement of freedom from Britain. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen French document declaring equality and rights. ⸻ Important People Thomas Jefferson Main writer of the Declaration of Independence. Louis XVI French king executed during the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte Rose to power after the French Revolution. Simón Bolívar Helped liberate Venezuela and other nations. José de San Martín Helped free South American countries from Spain. Toussaint Louverture Led Haitian independence movement. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who fought for Venezuela’s independence? Simón Bolívar Why were the Articles of Confederation replaced? The national government was too weak. ⸻ CHAPTER 25 — INDUSTRIALIZATION, NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM Section 1 — Industrial Revolution Key Vocabulary Industrialize Develop factories and machines. Urbanization Growth of cities. Labor Union Workers organized for better conditions. Push-Pull Factor Reasons people leave or move to places. Socialism Government control of economy to help society. Communism Classless society where property is shared. Woman Suffrage Women’s right to vote. ⸻ Important People Eli Whitney Invented the cotton gin. Karl Marx Created communist ideas. Ellis Island Main immigration station in the U.S. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Three ways Industrial Revolution changed society • More factories • Urbanization • Faster transportation • More goods produced • Growth of middle class Push factors affecting immigration • Poverty • Famine • War • Lack of jobs ⸻ Section 2 — Nationalism Around the World Key Vocabulary Nationalism Strong pride and loyalty to one’s nation. Nation-State Country with one national identity. Militarism Building up armed forces. Republic Government where citizens elect leaders. Dictator Leader with total control. ⸻ Important People Otto von Bismarck Unified Germany under Prussian leadership. Giuseppe Garibaldi Helped unify Italy. Meiji Emperor Led modernization of Japan. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Problems after Latin American independence • Political instability • Weak economies • Dictatorships • Social inequality Who unified Germany? Otto von Bismarck How did the Meiji Restoration transform Japan? • Modern industry • Modern military • Western education and technology ⸻ Section 3 — The New Imperialism Key Vocabulary Imperialism Strong nations taking control of weaker regions. Direct Rule Foreign country controls government directly. Missionary Person spreading religion. Sepoy Indian soldier serving Britain. Raj British rule in India. ⸻ Important Places & Events Berlin Conference European nations divided Africa. East India Company Controlled trade and territory in India. French Indochina French-controlled region in Asia. ⸻ CHAPTER 26 — WORLD AT WAR Section 1 — World at War Key Vocabulary Alliance Agreement between countries for support. Stalemate No side can win. Trench Warfare Fighting from dug trenches. U-boat German submarine. Bolsheviks Russian revolutionary communist group. Treaty of Versailles Treaty ending WWI. Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Triple Entente Britain, France, Russia. League of Nations International peace organization after WWI. ⸻ Important People Vladimir Lenin Leader of Bolsheviks. Karl Marx Inspired communist beliefs. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What triggered WWI? Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Immediate effect of WWI on Russia Economic hardship and revolution. Why was WWI a total war? Entire economies and civilians supported the war effort. How did Bolsheviks change Russia’s war policy? Russia withdrew from WWI. Trench warfare resulted from what technology? Machine guns and modern artillery. ⸻ Section 2 — Between the Wars Key Vocabulary Fascism Dictatorship emphasizing nationalism and obedience. Propaganda Biased information used to influence people. Reparations Payments for war damages. Totalitarian Government with total control. Inflation Rising prices and weaker money value. ⸻ Important People Adolf Hitler Leader of Nazi Germany. Benito Mussolini Leader of Fascist Italy. Franklin D. Roosevelt Led U.S. during Great Depression and WWII. Joseph Stalin Communist dictator of USSR. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Conditions caused by Great Depression • Unemployment • Poverty • Bank failures • Economic collapse What kind of dictatorships did Hitler and Mussolini create? Fascist dictatorships. ⸻ Section 3 — World War II Key Vocabulary Appeasement Giving in to avoid conflict. Blitzkrieg “Lightning war” using fast attacks. Genocide Deliberate killing of a people group. Holocaust Murder of six million Jews during WWII. Ration Limit supplies during wartime. Atomic Bomb Extremely powerful nuclear weapon. ⸻ Important Places & People Pearl Harbor Japanese attack brought U.S. into WWII. Hiroshima First atomic bomb dropped. Nagasaki Second atomic bomb dropped. Winston Churchill Led Britain during WWII. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Which event broke German defenses in the west? D-Day invasion (Normandy invasion)