🇺🇸 APUSH CRAM SHEET PERIOD 1: 1491–1607 — Native America & Exploration Native American Societies * Iroquois Confederacy → political alliance of Native nations * Pueblo peoples → Southwest; agriculture, irrigation * Mississippian societies → Cahokia; agriculture and complex societies Columbian Exchange Americas → Europe * Corn * Potatoes * Tomatoes * Tobacco * Cacao Europe/Africa → Americas * Horses * Cattle * Sugar * Wheat * Diseases ⚠️ Major consequence: Native populations dramatically declined because of European diseases. Exploration * Christopher Columbus (1492) → opened sustained European contact * Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) → Spain/Portugal divided claims in the Americas * Encomienda System → Spanish forced Native labor ⸻ PERIOD 2: 1607–1754 — Colonies Jamestown — 1607 * First permanent English settlement * Virginia Company * John Smith → helped colony survive * Tobacco → major cash crop * John Rolfe → tobacco cultivation Important Virginia Developments * House of Burgesses (1619) → representative government * Headright System → encouraged immigration by giving land * Growth of slavery Plymouth & Massachusetts * Pilgrims → Plymouth, 1620 * Mayflower Compact → self-government * Puritans → Massachusetts Bay * John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Religion Puritans: wanted to reform the Church of England Quakers: * Religious tolerance * Equality * Pennsylvania * William Penn Bacon’s Rebellion — 1676 * Nathaniel Bacon led frontier farmers against Virginia government * Showed conflict between wealthy elites and poorer colonists * Contributed to increased reliance on enslaved labor Colonial Economies New England * Fishing * Shipbuilding * Trade * Small farms Middle Colonies * Grain * Trade * Diverse population Southern Colonies * Tobacco * Rice * Indigo * Plantation agriculture * Slavery ⸻ PERIOD 3: 1754–1800 — Revolution & Constitution French & Indian War — 1754–1763 Britain vs. France + Native allies Consequences * Britain wins * Britain gains territory * Britain has massive debt * Britain begins taxing colonies Proclamation of 1763 * Colonists prohibited from settling west of Appalachian Mountains * Angered colonists ⸻ Road to Revolution Tax Acts Stamp Act (1765) * Tax on printed materials * “No taxation without representation” Townshend Acts (1767) * Taxes on imports * Led to colonial resistance Boston Massacre (1770) * British soldiers killed colonists * Patriot propaganda Boston Tea Party (1773) * Colonists protested Tea Act Intolerable Acts (1774) * Punished Massachusetts * Helped unite colonies ⸻ Declaration of Independence — 1776 Thomas Jefferson Main ideas: * Natural rights * Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness * Government gets power from the people * People can overthrow an abusive government ⸻ Revolutionary War Turning Points Saratoga (1777) → Major American victory → France joins American side Yorktown (1781) → Cornwallis surrendered → Major fighting effectively ended Treaty of Paris (1783) → Britain recognized U.S. independence ⸻ Articles of Confederation Strengths * Won Revolutionary War * Land Ordinance of 1785 * Northwest Ordinance of 1787 Weaknesses * No power to tax * No executive branch * No national court system * Weak central government ⸻ Constitution Great Compromise * House of Representatives → population * Senate → equal representation 3/5 Compromise * Enslaved people counted as 3/5 for representation and taxation Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists Federalists * Strong national government * Hamilton * Madison * Jay Anti-Federalists * Feared centralized power * Wanted Bill of Rights Bill of Rights — 1791 First 10 amendments ⸻ PERIOD 4: 1800–1848 — Expansion & Democracy Jefferson Election of 1800 * Peaceful transfer of power * Jefferson becomes president Louisiana Purchase — 1803 * Bought from France * Doubled U.S. territory Lewis & Clark * Explored western territory ⸻ War of 1812 Causes: * British impressment * British interference with trade * British support for Native resistance Effects * Increased nationalism * Weakened Federalist Party * Encouraged American manufacturing ⸻ Market Revolution Transportation * Canals * Roads * Railroads * Steamboats Industrialization * Factories grew * Wage labor expanded * Cities grew Erie Canal → connected Great Lakes to Hudson River ⸻ Jacksonian Democracy Andrew Jackson * Expanded voting for white men * Spoils system * Popular democracy Indian Removal Act — 1830 * Forced Native Americans west * Trail of Tears * Major example of U.S. expansion and Native displacement Bank War Jackson opposed the national bank. ⸻ Manifest Destiny Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America. Texas * Texas declared independence from Mexico * Alamo * Texas becomes U.S. state in 1845 Mexican-American War — 1846–1848 U.S. victory → Mexican Cession Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo * U.S. gained California, New Mexico and huge western territory ⸻ PERIOD 5: 1844–1877 — Civil War & Reconstruction Sectionalism North * Industry * Free labor * Railroads * Growing cities South * Plantation economy * Cotton * Slavery West * Competition over whether slavery would expand ⸻ Slavery Cotton Gin * Eli Whitney * Made cotton processing faster * Increased demand for enslaved labor Missouri Compromise — 1820 * Missouri → slave * Maine → free * 36°30′ line Compromise of 1850 * California → free * Popular sovereignty in Utah/New Mexico * Fugitive Slave Act strengthened Kansas-Nebraska Act — 1854 * Popular sovereignty * Repealed Missouri Compromise * Led to Bleeding Kansas Dred Scott v. Sandford — 1857 Supreme Court ruled: * African Americans were not citizens * Congress couldn’t prohibit slavery in territories Lincoln-Douglas Debates Major issue → slavery’s expansion ⸻ Civil War Election of 1860 Abraham Lincoln wins Southern states secede. Emancipation Proclamation — 1863 * Freed enslaved people in rebelling states * Changed war aims toward ending slavery Gettysburg — 1863 Major Union victory Gettysburg Address * Equality * Democracy * “new birth of freedom” Appomattox — 1865 Lee surrendered to Grant. ⸻ Reconstruction — 1865–1877 13th Amendment Abolished slavery 14th Amendment Citizenship + equal protection 15th Amendment Voting rights for Black men Freedmen’s Bureau * Helped formerly enslaved people * Education * Employment * Food/housing assistance Black Codes Southern laws restricting African Americans after the Civil War. Ku Klux Klan Used violence and intimidation to suppress Black political participation. Compromise of 1877 * Ended disputed 1876 election * Federal troops withdrawn from South * Reconstruction effectively ended ⚠️ APUSH connection: Reconstruction achieved major constitutional changes but failed to permanently protect many of those gains. ⸻ PERIOD 6: 1865–1898 — Gilded Age Industrialization Important Industrialists * Andrew Carnegie → steel * John D. Rockefeller → oil * J.P. Morgan → banking/finance Robber Barons vs. Captains of Industry Robber Baron → exploited workers, monopolies Captain of Industry → created jobs/industry and sometimes philanthropy Social Darwinism Applied survival-of-the-fittest ideas to society/economics. ⸻ Labor Knights of Labor * Broad membership * Wanted better working conditions AFL * Samuel Gompers * Skilled workers * Higher wages * Shorter hours Major Strikes Haymarket Affair → labor unrest + anarchism Homestead Strike → Carnegie Steel Pullman Strike → railroad workers → federal government intervened ⸻ Immigration Old Immigration Mostly: * Northern/Western Europe New Immigration Mostly: * Southern/Eastern Europe * Italians * Poles * Russians Chinese Exclusion Act — 1882 Restricted Chinese immigration. ⸻ Urbanization Problems: * Tenements * Disease * Crime * Poor sanitation Political machines * Ex: Tammany Hall * Provided services in exchange for votes ⸻ PERIOD 7: 1890–1945 — Progressive Era & World Wars Progressivism Goals: * Reduce corruption * Regulate corporations * Improve working conditions * Consumer protection * Women’s suffrage Muckrakers Investigative journalists exposing problems. Upton Sinclair → The Jungle → exposed meatpacking conditions → helped inspire Meat Inspection Act & Pure Food and Drug Act Theodore Roosevelt Square Deal * Trust busting * Conservation * Consumer protection 16th Amendment → Federal income tax 17th Amendment → Direct election of senators 18th Amendment → Prohibition 19th Amendment → Women’s suffrage ⸻ Imperialism Spanish-American War — 1898 U.S. victory U.S. gains influence over: * Puerto Rico * Guam * Philippines Open Door Policy U.S. wanted equal trade access in China. Roosevelt Corollary U.S. claimed right to intervene in Latin America. ⸻ World War I Causes Think MAIN * Militarism * Alliance system * Imperialism * Nationalism U.S. enters in 1917. Wilson’s Fourteen Points * Self-determination * League of Nations * International cooperation Treaty of Versailles Senate rejected it. ⸻ 1920s Consumer Culture * Cars * Radios * Movies * Advertising Harlem Renaissance African American cultural movement. Important figures: * Langston Hughes * Zora Neale Hurston * Duke Ellington Great Migration African Americans moved from South → Northern/Western cities. ⸻ Great Depression Causes * Stock market speculation * Bank failures * Unequal wealth * Overproduction * Consumer debt FDR’s New Deal Relief → help people now Recovery → rebuild economy Reform → prevent future depression Important Programs CCC → jobs for young men WPA → public works/jobs Social Security Act → retirement assistance FDIC → protects bank deposits SEC → regulates stock market ⸻ World War II Pearl Harbor — 1941 Japan attacks U.S. U.S. enters WWII. Japanese American Internment Executive Order 9066 → forced relocation/internment D-Day — 1944 Allied invasion of Europe. Manhattan Project Developed atomic bomb. Hiroshima & Nagasaki Atomic bombs used against Japan. Japan surrenders → 1945 ⸻ PERIOD 8: 1945–1980 — Cold War & Civil Rights Cold War U.S. vs. USSR Capitalism vs. Communism Truman Doctrine Contain communism. Marshall Plan Economic aid to rebuild Europe. NATO Western military alliance. Korean War U.S. supports South Korea against communist North Korea. ⸻ Civil Rights Movement Brown v. Board — 1954 School segregation unconstitutional. Rosa Parks Montgomery Bus Boycott Martin Luther King Jr. * Nonviolent protest * Civil rights Civil Rights Act — 1964 Banned segregation/discrimination in many public settings. Voting Rights Act — 1965 Protected voting rights. Malcolm X Initially promoted Black nationalism/self-defense; later shifted views toward broader cooperation. ⸻ Vietnam War Domino Theory If one country becomes communist, nearby countries may follow. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Expanded presidential power in Vietnam. Vietnamization Nixon’s policy of reducing U.S. troops while South Vietnam took more responsibility. Effects * Antiwar movement * Distrust of government * War Powers Act ⸻ PERIOD 9: 1980–Present Reagan Reaganomics Tax cuts + deregulation + reduced government spending Conservative Movement * Lower taxes * Smaller government * Anti-communism * Traditional social values Cold War Ends 1989 → Berlin Wall falls 1991 → USSR collapses ⸻ ⭐ MUST-KNOW APUSH THEMES 1. Federal Power Articles → weak government ↓ Constitution → stronger government ↓ Civil War → massive federal expansion ↓ New Deal → federal government expands economically ↓ Great Society → federal government expands social programs ⸻ 2. Race Colonial slavery ↓ Expansion of slavery ↓ Civil War ↓ 13th/14th/15th Amendments ↓ Jim Crow ↓ Civil Rights Movement ↓ Civil Rights Act + Voting Rights Act ⸻ 3. Expansion Louisiana Purchase ↓ Manifest Destiny ↓ Mexican-American War ↓ Westward expansion ↓ Imperialism ↓ Overseas influence ⸻ 4. Economy Agricultural colonies ↓ Market Revolution ↓ Industrial Revolution ↓ Gilded Age corporations ↓ Great Depression ↓ New Deal ↓ Modern consumer economy ⸻ 🔥 20 EVENTS YOU ABSOLUTELY NEED TO KNOW Date Event 1492 Columbus 1607 Jamestown 1620 Plymouth 1754–63 French & Indian War 1776 Declaration of Independence 1781 Articles/ Yorktown 1787 Constitution 1803 Louisiana Purchase 1812 War of 1812 1820 Missouri Compromise 1830 Indian Removal Act 1846–48 Mexican-American War 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act 1861–65 Civil War 1863 Emancipation Proclamation 1865 13th Amendment 1898 Spanish-American War 1929 Great Depression begins 1941 Pearl Harbor 1954 Brown v. Board 1964 Civil Rights Act 1965 Voting Rights Act 🧠 APUSH Essay Formula For LEQs/DBQs, remember: Claim → Evidence → Explain → Connect Don’t just say what happened. Instead: Evidence: The Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise. Analysis: This increased sectional tensions because it allowed slavery to potentially expand into territories previously closed to it, contributing to the breakdown of political compromise before the Civil War. APUSH loves CAUSATION, CHANGE/CONTINUITY, and COMPARISON. Ask yourself: * Why did this happen? * What did it cause? * What changed? * What stayed the same? * Who benefited? * Who was harmed? * How does this connect to another period

GCSE Spanish Module 1 (Edexcel HIGHER)

Higher tier synonyms for verbs

Absolutely. Since this covers a lot of material, I’d turn it into a master study note with simple definitions, key ideas, and what you should remember for the exam. PHILOS 01 — Master Study Notes 1. Ideas of Philosophy Philosophy Philosophy means the love of wisdom. It is the study of big questions about reality, knowledge, morality, existence, and how we should live. Philosophy begins in wonder Philosophy begins when we become curious and ask “Why?” or “What is this?” instead of simply accepting things as they appear. Example: Instead of just seeing a tree, a philosopher might ask: • What does it mean for something to exist? • How do I know the tree is really there? • What makes something alive? Arguments An argument is reasoning used to support a conclusion. • Premises = reasons/evidence • Conclusion = what the argument is trying to prove Example: • Premise: All humans are mortal. • Premise: Socrates is human. • Conclusion: Socrates is mortal. 2. Fallacies of Reasoning A fallacy is a mistake in reasoning that makes an argument weak or misleading. Important idea A fallacy can sound convincing but still be logically wrong. When studying fallacies, ask: “Does the evidence actually support the conclusion?” 3. Branches of Philosophy Branch Main Question Logic How should we reason correctly? Epistemology What is knowledge? How do we know? Metaphysics What is reality/existence? Ethics What is right and wrong? How should we live? Aesthetics What is beauty/art? Social & Political Philosophy How should society and government work? Easy way to remember: Logic = reasoning Epistemology = knowledge Metaphysics = reality Ethics = morality Aesthetics = beauty Political philosophy = society/government 4. Socrates 5 Who was Socrates? Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who focused heavily on questioning people and examining their beliefs. He did not write books himself. Much of what we know about him comes from Plato's dialogues. The Delphic Oracle The Oracle at Delphi reportedly declared that no one was wiser than Socrates. Socrates questioned this because he believed he was not wise. He eventually realized that his wisdom came from recognizing his own ignorance. “One thing only I know, I know nothing.” This expresses Socratic humility. Socrates understood that recognizing what you do not know is an important form of wisdom. “The unexamined life is not worth living.” Socrates believed people should examine their beliefs, choices, and lives rather than simply going along with everyone else. Trial of Socrates Socrates was charged with: 1. Corrupting the youth 2. Not believing in the gods of Athens 3. Introducing new gods/deities He was found guilty and sentenced to death. Metaphors of Socrates Midwife • Socrates compared himself to a midwife. • A midwife helps someone give birth. • Socrates believed he helped people give birth to ideas through questioning. Gadfly • A gadfly is an insect that annoys or stings. • Socrates saw himself as someone who bothered Athens by challenging people to think. Stingray • A stingray can paralyze or numb someone. • Socrates' questioning could leave people confused and unsure of what they thought they knew. Remember Socrates: QUESTION EVERYTHING + EXAMINE YOUR LIFE + RECOGNIZE YOUR IGNORANCE 5. Plato 5 Plato was a student of Socrates. He wrote dialogues, many of which feature Socrates. Plato's Two Realms Physical realm The world we experience with our senses. Characteristics: • Time • Change/becoming • Physical objects • Opinion Metaphysical realm A higher, unchanging reality. Characteristics: • Eternity • Being • Forms • Knowledge Forms Forms are perfect, unchanging realities or concepts. Example: You can see many different chairs, but Plato would say there is a perfect Form of Chair that individual chairs imperfectly represent. 6. Allegory of the Cave The Allegory of the Cave explains the difference between appearance and reality. Imagine prisoners chained inside a cave. They can only see shadows on a wall and believe the shadows are reality. One prisoner escapes and discovers the outside world. What it means: Cave = ignorance Shadows = appearances/opinions Leaving cave = gaining knowledge Outside world = higher reality Sun = ultimate truth/the Good Main idea: People may mistake what they see or believe for reality. Education and philosophy can help people discover deeper truth. 7. Divided Line of Knowledge Plato divides understanding into levels. Lower levels: Images → Physical objects Higher levels: Mathematical reasoning → Forms The higher you move, the closer you get to genuine knowledge. Easy idea: Opinion → Reasoning → Knowledge 8. Aristotle 6 Aristotle was a student of Plato but disagreed with some of Plato's ideas. Universals A universal is a characteristic shared by many individual things. Example: Many different objects can be red. The individual objects are different, but redness is something they share. Third Man Argument This is an argument that challenges Plato's theory of Forms. If individual things and their Form are both “man,” then you may need another Form to explain what they have in common. This could continue forever. Basic idea: Plato's Forms may create an infinite regress. 9. Potentiality and Actuality Aristotle believed things have: Potentiality What something could become. Actuality What something is currently. Example: A seed has the potentiality to become a tree. A grown tree is the actuality of that potential. Remember: Potential = could be Actual = is 10. Aristotle's Four Causes Aristotle used four causes to explain why something exists or what explains it. 1. Material Cause What is it made of? Example: A statue is made of marble. 2. Formal Cause What is its form/design? Example: The shape of the statue. 3. Efficient Cause Who or what made it? Example: The sculptor. 4. Final Cause What is its purpose? Example: The statue was created as a memorial. Memory trick: Material = matter Formal = form Efficient = maker Final = purpose 11. Aristotle's Ethics Aristotle asked: How can human beings live a happy life? He believed happiness comes from living excellently and developing virtue. Eudaimonia Eudaimonia = human flourishing / living well It is more than temporary pleasure. It means living a good, meaningful, virtuous life. The Golden Mean Virtue is often found between two extremes. Deficiency ← Mean → Excess Example: Courage • Cowardice = deficiency • Courage = mean • Recklessness = excess Important: The mean is not always exactly halfway. It is the appropriate amount for the situation. Aristotle: Virtue = finding the appropriate mean between extremes. 12. Ten Categories of Aristotle Aristotle developed categories for describing what things are. Important categories include: • Substance • Quantity • Quality • Relation • Place • Time • Position • State • Action • Passion Most important: Substance = what something fundamentally is. 13. Hellenistic Philosophers After Aristotle, philosophy became strongly focused on: How should I live? Three important philosophers/traditions in your study guide are: • Epicurus • Epictetus • Plotinus 14. Epicurus 5 Epicurus believed pleasure is the greatest good, but he did not mean constant partying or luxury. For Epicurus, the best life is peaceful and free from unnecessary suffering. Goals: • Peace of mind • Health of the body • Avoid unnecessary pain • Avoid unnecessary fear Important: Not every pleasure should be chosen. Sometimes a pleasure can cause greater pain later. Example: Eating too much junk food might feel pleasurable now but make you feel sick later. Types of Pleasures Natural and necessary Things necessary for basic well-being. Examples: • Food • Water • Shelter Natural but unnecessary Pleasures that are natural but aren't required. Unnatural/unnecessary Desires that can become excessive. Examples: • Extreme wealth • Fame • Status Letter to Menoeceus Epicurus explains his philosophy of living a peaceful and happy life. Remember Epicurus: Good life = simple pleasures + peace of mind + little fear 15. Epictetus 5 Epictetus was a Stoic philosopher. Stoicism teaches that we should focus on what is within our control and accept what is outside our control. What is in our power? Things such as: • Our judgments • Our choices • Our reactions • Our attitudes What is beyond our power? Things such as: • Other people's actions • The past • Other people's opinions • Many external events Famous idea: “People are disturbed not by things but the views they take of things.” Meaning: The event itself isn't always what causes our emotional reaction. Our interpretation of the event matters. Another important quote: “Demand not that things happen as you wish…” Meaning: Don't demand that reality match exactly what you want. Instead, learn to accept reality and respond wisely. The Enchiridion The Enchiridion is a handbook/summary of Stoic teachings associated with Epictetus. Remember Epictetus: CONTROL WHAT YOU CAN + ACCEPT WHAT YOU CAN'T 16. Plotinus Plotinus developed Neoplatonism, which was influenced by Plato. The One At the center of Plotinus' philosophy is The One. The One is the ultimate source of reality. It is beyond ordinary description. Mystical Experience Plotinus believed people could experience a mystical union with The One. The Enneads Plotinus' philosophical writings are collecte in The Enneads. Remember: Plotinus = Neoplatonism + The One + mystical experience 17. Hypatia 4 Hypatia was a: • Neoplatonist philosopher • Astronomer • Mathematician • Teacher • Counselor She was a pagan and was murdered in Alexandria. Remember: Hypatia = philosopher + mathematician + astronomer + teacher 18. Metaphysics & Epistemology Metaphysics Studies reality and existence. Questions: • What exists? • What is reality? • What is the nature of being? Epistemology Studies knowledge. Questions: • What is knowledge? • How do we know something? • Can we be certain? 19. Important Terminology Dualism Reality consists of two fundamentally different kinds of things. Example: • Mind • Body Materialism / Physicalism Everything that exists is ultimately physical/material. Easy: Only physical reality exists. Idealism Reality is fundamentally connected to mind, ideas, or consciousness rather than matter alone. Pantheism God and the universe are understood as closely identified. Easy: God = nature/universe Monism Reality ultimately consists of one fundamental substance or reality. Easy: One fundamental reality Skepticism Questions whether we can have certain knowledge. Easy: “How do I know that I really know?” 20. Descartes 5 Descartes wanted to discover something that was certain. Skepticism as the Key to Certainty He used methodological doubt. He questioned: • His senses • His experiences • The external world • Even mathematical beliefs He wanted to doubt everything that could possibly be doubted. Cogito Ergo Sum “I think, therefore I am.” Even if Descartes doubts everything, he cannot doubt that he is thinking. And if he is thinking, he must exist as a thinking being. Remember: Doubting = thinking → thinking proves existence Clear and Distinct Ideas Descartes believed ideas that are perceived clearly and distinctly can provide certainty. Cartesian Dualism Descartes believed there are two fundamentally different substances: Mind • Thinking • Nonphysical Body • Physical • Extended in space Remember: Descartes = mind + body 21. Spinoza = 5 Spinoza disagreed with Descartes' idea of two separate substances. One Substance Spinoza believed there is only one substance. He identified this with God/Nature. This makes Spinoza a form of monism. Remember: Spinoza = ONE substance 22. Conatus Conatus = the drive or tendency of everything to preserve and continue its existence. Think: “I want to keep existing.” It is like a fundamental life force or striving. 23. Spinoza: Active vs. Passive Emotions This is important. Passive emotions These happen to us. We are being affected by something outside ourselves. Examples: • Fear • Jealousy • Anger • Sadness We don't fully understand the cause, so we are less in control. Active emotions These come from understanding and reason. When we understand why something happens, we become more capable of responding rationally. Easy comparison: Passive = something controls my emotional response Active = understanding gives me greater control Spinoza's goal: Move from passive emotions → active emotions through understanding. 24. Thought and Extension Spinoza described two attributes’ humans can understand: Thought The mental/intellectual aspect. Extension The physical/material aspect.. They are not two separate substances. Instead, they are different ways of understanding the same underlying reality. 25. Leibniz Leibniz believed reality is made up of fundamental units called monads. Monads Monads are: • Nonphysical • Simple/basic units of reality • Not physical atoms Remember: Leibniz = Monads Principle of Identity Something is itself. A = A. Example: A dog is a dog. Principle of Sufficient Reason Everything that happens or exists must have a sufficient reason explaining why it is that way rather than another way. Easy: “Why is this the way it is?” There must be a reason. — FINAL CRASH NOTES: PART 2 JOHN LOCKE Tabula Rasa = “Blank Slate” Locke believed the mind is not born filled with ideas. Instead, the mind starts like a blank slate, and knowledge develops through experience. Tabula rasa = blank slate “Nothing exists in the mind that was not first in the senses.” Meaning: We first experience things through our senses, and those experiences become ideas in our minds. Easy example: Baby sees → hears → touches → tastes → experiences the world → develops knowledge. 🔑 Remember: LOCKE = EXPERIENCE GEORGE BERKELEY Idealism Berkeley believed that reality is fundamentally connected to perception/mind. He rejected the idea that physical matter exists independently of perception in the way people usually assume. Famous phrase: Esse est percipi Meaning: “To be is to be perceived.” Simple example: You see a chair. Berkeley focuses on the chair as something perceived rather than saying there is a completely independent material chair existing exactly as we imagine it outside perception. 🔑 Remember: BERKELEY = PERCEPTION DAVID HUME Skepticism Hume was skeptical about what we can know with certainty. He argued that what we directly experience are perceptions. Famous quote: “The only existences of which we are certain, are perceptions.” What does that mean? You experience: • sights • sounds • feelings • thoughts • sensations But Hume questions whether we can be absolutely certain about things beyond those perceptions. Modified Skeptic Hume does not necessarily say: “Nothing is real.” Instead, he recognizes that humans naturally believe things based on experience, even though we cannot always prove them with absolute certainty. 🔑 Remember: HUME = SKEPTICISM Think: “Can I really be certain?” 🧠 LOCKE vs. BERKELEY vs. HUME This is VERY important. Philosopher Main Idea Memory Word Locke Knowledge comes from experience Experience Berkeley Being is connected to perception Perception Hume We should be skeptical about certainty Skepticism Memorize this: Locke → Experience Berkeley → Perception Hume → Skepticism IMMANUEL KANT Kant is probably one of the more difficult philosophers on your study guide, so don't overcomplicate him. Copernican Revolution in Philosophy Before Kant, philosophers often asked: How does our mind understand the world? Kant changed the way people thought about the relationship between the mind and reality. His basic idea: Our minds help structure the way we experience reality. Instead of the mind simply receiving information from the world, the mind actively organizes experience. Easy way to think about it: World → Mind doesn't just receive it → Mind organizes experience Phenomena vs. Noumena This is VERY important. Phenomena What we experience/perceive. It's reality as it appears to us. Think: Phenomena = appearance/experience Noumena Things-in-themselves. Reality as it exists independently of how humans experience it. Kant called this: Das Ding-an-sich German for: “The Thing-In-Itself” Think: Phenomena = what I experience Noumena = thing as it is in itself 🚨 SUPER EASY KANT MEMORY TRICK P = Phenomena = Perceived N = Noumena = Not directly known So: P = what appears N = thing-in-itself CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE This is Kant's major idea in ethics. The categorical imperative basically says: Act according to principles that you could want everyone to follow. Example: You want to lie to get something. Ask: “What if everyone lied whenever it benefited them?” If everyone did that, trust and communication would break down. Therefore, lying isn't something you could consistently want as a universal rule. Easy version: Would it be okay if EVERYONE did this? If not, don't do it. 🔑 Remember: KANT = UNIVERSAL MORAL RULE 🧠 KANT IN ONE MINUTE Kant: Copernican Revolution → Mind helps organize experience. Phenomena → Reality as we experience it. Noumena → Things-in-themselves. Categorical Imperative → Act according to rules you could want everyone to follow. Memory sentence: Kant says our minds organize experience, we experience phenomena rather than directly knowing noumena, and morality requires universal principles. 🌎 CONTINENTAL TRADITION Now your study guide moves into: Existentialism Existentialism focuses heavily on the individual person and their experience of existence. It asks questions like: • Why am I here? • What does my life mean? • How should I live? • How do I deal with suffering? • Do I have freedom? • How do I deal with uncertainty? PHENOMENOLOGY Phenomenology focuses on conscious experience. Basically: What is it like to experience something from the first-person perspective? Instead of immediately asking whether something objectively exists, phenomenology examines how it appears in our experience. Remember: Phenomenology = experience/consciousness EXISTENTIALISM — MAIN CONCEPTS Your study guide gives you several phrases. Let's translate them into normal language. Focus on the individual Existentialism focuses on your individual existence and choices. Not just: “What does society tell me to do?” But: “What am I going to choose?” Confrontation with the world Humans have to deal with a world that doesn't always give us clear answers. Life can be confusing, difficult, and unpredictable. Existential predicament The difficult situation of being a human being who has: • freedom • responsibility • uncertainty • mortality • choices THE WORLD IS ABSURD Absurd does not simply mean “funny.” It means there can be a conflict between: Our desire for meaning and A world that doesn't provide obvious meaning. THE WORLD IS IRRATIONAL The world doesn't always operate according to what seems fair or logical to us. Bad things can happen to good people. Good things can happen to bad people. We don't always get answers. EXISTENTIAL EMOTIONS Your study guide lists: • Senselessness • Anxiety • Dread • Self-doubt • Despair These are connected to confronting existence and uncertainty. Easy way: “What am I supposed to do with my life when there aren't easy answers?” That is an existential question. SØREN KIERKEGAAR 4 Kierkegaard is considered an important precursor/foundational thinker of existentialism. He focused heavily on: • Individual existence • Choice • Anxiety • Despair • Faith • Personal responsibility Important idea: Kierkegaard believed that individuals must personally confront the difficult choices of existence. You cannot simply let society make all your choices for you. NOLOGY 🌎 1. Continental Tradition The Continental tradition focuses heavily on questions about: • Human existence • Meaning • Freedom • Individual experience • Anxiety • Society • What it means to be human Two major areas in your guide: Existentialism Focuses on the individual and their existence. Phenomenology Focuses on conscious experience and how things appear to us. Easy memory: Existentialism = How do I live? Phenomenology = How do I experience? EXISTENTIALISM Main Concepts Focus on the individual Existentialists are interested in the individual people: • Choices • Freedom • Responsibility • Meaning • Identity Confrontation with the world People must face a world that doesn't always give them easy answers. Existential predicament Humans must deal with: • Freedom • Choices • Death • Uncertainty • Responsibility • Meaning The world is absurd Absurd means there is a conflict between our desire for meaning and a world that may not provide obvious meaning. The world is irrational Life doesn't always make sense. Things don't always happen according to what seems fair or logical. Existential emotions You may experience: Anxiety → dread → self-doubt → despair These can come from confronting freedom, uncertainty, death, and meaning. 🧔 2. SØREN KIERKEGAARD 4 ⭐ Main idea: The individual must personally choose how to live. Kierkegaard is an important early existentialist thinker. Three Stages of Life 1. Aesthetic Stage Living for: • Pleasure • Entertainment • Immediate experiences The person avoids deeper commitment. Think: “I just want to enjoy myself.” 2. Ethical Stage The person begins taking: • Responsibility • Commitment • Morality more seriously. Think: “I have responsibilities, and my choices matter.” 3. Religious Stage The individual develops a personal relationship with God/faith. This requires a leap of faith. Leap of Faith A leap of faith means making a commitment to faith even though you cannot prove everything through reason. Important: Kierkegaard believed faith involves personal commitment, not simply intellectually knowing facts about religion. Importance of the Individual Kierkegaard emphasized that truth and faith must become personally lived. Remember: Kierkegaard = Individual + stages + leap of faith 🧔‍♂️ 3. FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE 4 Nietzsche is VERY important. ⭐ Main ideas: Will to power + master/slave morality + Ubermensch + eternal recurrence Eternal Recurrence Nietzsche asks you to imagine: What if you had to live your exact life over and over again forever? Every decision. Every mistake. Every happiness. Everything. Why does he ask this? It challenges you to ask: “Am I living my life in a way that I could accept repeating forever?” 🐪 Camel → 🦁 Lion → 👶 Child This represents stages of transformation. 🐪 Camel The camel carries burdens. Represents: • Obedience • Accepting traditional values • Carrying expectations Think: “I will carry what society tells me.” 🦁 Lion The lion fights against old values and expectations. Represents: • Rebellion • Saying “No” • Rejecting imposed values Think: “I refuse to simply accept what society tells me.” 👶 Child The child represents: • Creativity • New beginnings • Creating new values • Freedom Think: “I can create my own values.” ⭐ Memorize: Camel = obey Lion = rebel Child = create Will to Power The will to power is the drive to: • Grow • Overcome obstacles • Develop oneself • Express strength • Create and achieve It is more complicated than simply wanting political power. Think: “Become stronger and overcome yourself.” Slave Morality vs. Master Morality Slave Morality Values associated with: • Humility • Weakness • Submission • Compassion • Turning the other cheek Nietzsche criticized morality that he believed glorified weakness. Master Morality Values associated with: • Strength • Achievement • Confidence • Excellence • Self-assertion Easy: Slave morality → weakness/submission Master morality → strength/self-assertion Ubermensch Ubermensch = Overman / Higher Human A person who: • Overcomes themselves • Creates their own values • Does not blindly follow society • Strives for excellence Important: Don't think “superhero.” Think: Someone who creates and lives according to higher values rather than blindly following the crowd. ☕ 4. FRANZ KAFKA 5 The Metamorphosis Kafka's famous story about Gregor Samsa, who wakes up transformed into a strange insect-like creature. The story explores themes such as: • Isolation • Alienation • Identity • Meaning • Family • Absurdity Remember: Kafka = Metamorphosis = alienation/absurdity 🧔 5. ALBERT CAMUS 5 Camus is one of the most important existential/absurdist thinkers. The Myth of Sisyphus Sisyphus is condemned to push a huge rock up a hill. Every time he gets near the top: The rock rolls back down. He has to do it again. And again. And again. Why is this important? It represents the human condition: We search for meaning, but life may not give us a clear ultimate meaning. Life is Absurd Camus believed there is a conflict between: Human desire for meaning and A universe that doesn't provide obvious meaning. That's the absurd. Revolt Against Absurdity Camus' response isn't: “Give up.” Instead: Recognize the absurd and continue living anyway. We should live fully even without a guaranteed ultimate meaning. Suicide as a Philosophical Question Camus asks: If life is absurd, is suicide the logical response? His answer is essentially no. Instead, we should confront absurdity and continue living. Need for Clarity Camus values honestly recognizing reality rather than comforting ourselves with false certainty. Need for social warmth and contact Humans still need: • Connection • Friendship • Community • Relationships Even in an absurd world, relationships can make life richer. Remember Camus: Absurdity → don't give up → revolt/live → relationships 🧔‍♂️ 6. JEAN-PAUL SARTRE 6 Sartre is another VERY important philosopher. Existence Precedes Essence This is probably Sartre's most important phrase. Traditional idea: Something has an essence that determines what it is. Sartre flips this for human beings. Humans exist first. Then: We define ourselves through our choices. So: You are not born with a predetermined purpose that completely defines you. You create yourself through your actions. Memory: Existence → choices → essence Condemned to Be Free Sartre believed humans are free. But freedom is difficult because: We are responsible for our choices. You cannot completely escape responsibility by saying: “I had no choice.” Bad Faith Bad faith = lying to yourself about your freedom/responsibility. Example: “I'm just this way. I can't change.” Sartre might say you're denying your freedom. Remember: Bad faith = pretending you aren't free/responsible Authenticity Authenticity = honestly accepting your freedom and responsibility. Instead of: “Everyone else expects me to do this.” You ask: “What do I genuinely choose?” Abandonment Sartre's atheism means there is no God providing a predetermined moral rulebook. Therefore, humans experience abandonment. We are responsible for choosing our values. Atheism Sartre was an atheist existentialist. Without God determining our essence or purpose: We must create meaning through our choices. Fundamental Project Each person has an overall direction or project through which they try to make sense of their life. It represents the way someone chooses to live and define themselves. Remember Sartre: Freedom + responsibility + choices + authenticity 👩 7. SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR 6 Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialist ideas to women's lives and social roles. The Second Sex Her famous book examines the ways women have been treated as the “Other” in society. She challenged the idea that women's roles are simply natural or predetermined. Free to Choose Existentialism emphasizes that people have freedom and responsibility. Beauvoir applies this to women: Women should have the freedom to determine their own lives rather than being restricted by social expectations. Remember: Beauvoir = Existentialism + women + freedom 📚 8. EDMUND HUSSERL 4 Husserl is the major philosopher you need to associate with: PHENOMENOLOGY Phenomenology studies conscious experience. Instead of immediately asking: “What is the object really?” Husserl asks: “How does this object appear in my experience?” Transcendental Phenomenology Husserl wanted to investigate the structures of consciousness that make experience possible. Bracketing This is important. Bracketing = temporarily setting aside assumptions about whether something objectively exists. You're focusing on: Your experience of the thing. Example: Instead of asking: “Does this chair objectively exist?” You ask: “How do I experience this chair?” Phenomenological Reduction You reduce your attention to the experience itself. Think: Set aside assumptions → examine experience → understand consciousness Consciousness For Husserl, consciousness is always consciousness of something. You're conscious of: • A thought • An object • A memory • A sound • A person Remember: Husserl = Phenomenology = consciousness + experience + bracketing 🧔‍♂️ 9. MARTIN HEIDEGGER 5 Heidegger is focused heavily on: BEING His major question: What does it mean to be? Thrown Into the World Humans don't choose: • When they're born • Where they're born • Their family • Their historical situation We are thrown into a world that already exists. Example: You didn't choose: “I want to be born in this country, during this year, into this family.” You simply find yourself already here. Remember: Thrownness = I find myself already in a world I didn't choose. Sinn Sinn = sense / meaning Heidegger is interested in how human beings understand and interpret meaning. Everydayness Most of the time, people simply go through everyday routines: • Wake up • Go to school • Work • Eat • Scroll • Sleep We can become absorbed in everyday life without deeply questioning our existence. Think: Everydayness = ordinary routine life Care Care is central to Heidegger's understanding of human existence. Humans are always concerned with: • Their lives • Other people • Their future • Their responsibilities • What matters to them Simple: Being human means caring about things. Chatter Chatter means the constant talk/opinions circulating around us. It can keep us from genuinely thinking for ourselves. Example: “Everyone says college is supposed to be like this.” “Everyone says success means this.” “Everyone says I should do this.” Heidegger asks whether you're actually thinking for yourself. The Question of Being This is Heidegger's BIG question: What does it mean to be? Not simply: “What things exist?” But: “What is Being itself?” Poetry Heidegger believed poetry can help reveal Being and meaning in ways ordinary everyday language may not. Remember: Heidegger = Being + thrownness + everydayness + care

2. Higher Education

Absolutely. Your list is very broad, so the best way to study it is not to memorize every disease. We can turn it into a high-yield nursing reviewer based on: What is it? → What will I see? → What should I assess? → What should I do? → What medications/treatments matter? → What is the priority/emergency? → What should I teach? Below is a condensed master reviewer. I’ll keep it nursing-focused and use simple language. ⸻ 🩺 MEDICAL-SURGICAL NURSING REVIEWER 1. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Type 2 Main problem Little/no insulin Insulin resistance + progressive insulin deficiency Usually Younger onset, but can occur any age More common in adults Treatment Insulin required Lifestyle + oral/injectable meds ± insulin Major acute problems DKA HHS Signs of hyperglycemia “3 Ps” * Polyuria – urinating frequently * Polydipsia – excessive thirst * Polyphagia – excessive hunger Other: * Fatigue * Blurred vision * Slow wound healing * Recurrent infections Hypoglycemia Think FAST: * F – Feeling shaky * A – Altered behaviour/confusion * S – Sweating * T – Tachycardia Treatment if conscious: 15 g fast carbohydrate → recheck glucose in 15 min → repeat if necessary. Examples: * Glucose tablets * Juice * Regular pop If unconscious/severe: * Glucagon if appropriate * IV dextrose in a healthcare setting DKA Usually associated with Type 1. Think: Hyperglycemia + ketones + metabolic acidosis Signs: * Dehydration * Abdominal pain * Nausea/vomiting * Fruity/acetone breath * Kussmaul respirations * Altered LOC Priority treatment: 1. IV fluids 2. Insulin 3. Monitor/correct electrolytes, especially potassium 4. Monitor glucose and acid-base status HHS Usually Type 2. * Extremely high glucose * Severe dehydration * Altered LOC * Little/no significant ketoacidosis Major nursing priority: fluid replacement and monitoring. Diabetes teaching Remember: * Foot care * Inspect feet daily * Proper footwear * Don’t walk barefoot * Don’t cut corns/calluses yourself * Monitor blood glucose * Know signs of hypo/hyperglycemia * Medication adherence * Sick-day management * Regular eye/kidney/foot assessments ⸻ ❤️ 2. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Stroke Two major types: * Ischemic → blocked blood vessel * Hemorrhagic → bleeding Recognize stroke: BE FAST B – Balance loss E – Eye/vision changes F – Face drooping A – Arm weakness S – Speech difficulty T – Time to call emergency services Nursing priorities * ABCs * Determine last known well * Neurological assessment * Blood glucose * Prepare for CT/imaging * Swallow assessment before oral food/fluids/medications * Prevent aspiration * Maintain safety Do not give food or water until swallowing is assessed. ⸻ Myocardial Infarction (MI) Think: “Time = muscle.” Common symptoms: * Chest pressure/pain * Radiation to arm/jaw/back * Dyspnea * Diaphoresis * Nausea * Anxiety Some patients, especially older adults and people with diabetes, may have atypical or minimal pain. Nursing priorities * ABCs * ECG * Vital signs * Cardiac monitoring * IV access * Blood work including cardiac biomarkers * Oxygen if hypoxemic/clinically indicated * Administer prescribed medications promptly Common medications: * Aspirin * Nitroglycerin * Antiplatelet drugs * Anticoagulants * Beta blockers * Statins Nitroglycerin Can cause: * Hypotension * Headache * Dizziness Never combine nitrates with PDE-5 inhibitors because of potentially severe hypotension. ⸻ Heart Failure Left-sided Think Lungs * Dyspnea * Crackles * Orthopnea * Pulmonary edema * Pink/frothy sputum in severe pulmonary edema Right-sided Think Body * Peripheral edema * Weight gain * JVD * Hepatomegaly * Ascites Nursing priorities * Daily weight * I&O * Respiratory assessment * Edema assessment * Fluid/sodium management as ordered * Medication adherence Sudden weight gain can indicate fluid retention. Common drugs: * Diuretics * ACE inhibitors/ARBs/ARNI * Beta blockers * Mineralocorticoid antagonists * SGLT2 inhibitors * Digoxin in selected patients Digoxin Watch for: * Bradycardia * Nausea/vomiting * Visual disturbances * Dysrhythmias Low potassium increases risk of digoxin toxicity. ⸻ Peripheral Vascular Disease Arterial Think: “Pain + Pale + Pulseless + Cold” * Cool extremity * Weak pulses * Pale colour * Pain with activity * Poor wound healing Venous Think: “Swollen + Warm + Edema” * Edema * Warm skin * Aching * Venous ulcers often near ankles ⸻ 🩸 3. HEMATOLOGY Anemia Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. Signs: * Fatigue * Pallor * Weakness * Dyspnea * Tachycardia * Dizziness Iron-deficiency anemia May see: * Low hemoglobin * Low ferritin * Microcytic/hypochromic RBCs Iron teaching: * Take as directed * Vitamin C can improve absorption * Dark stools are common * Constipation can occur * Liquid iron may stain teeth ⸻ Leukemia Cancer of blood-forming tissues. Possible findings: * Infection → abnormal WBC function * Anemia → fatigue/pallor * Bleeding → low platelets * Bone/joint pain Think: Leukemia = infection + anemia + bleeding Nursing priorities: * Infection prevention * Bleeding precautions when indicated * Monitor CBC * Oral care * Avoid unnecessary invasive procedures * Monitor treatment adverse effects ⸻ 🍽️ 4. GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM Crohn’s vs Colitis Crohn’s Ulcerative Colitis Can affect anywhere mouth → anus Colon/rectum “Skip lesions” Continuous inflammation Transmural Mainly mucosal Fistulas common Bloody diarrhea common Strictures possible Toxic megacolon risk Crohn’s Watch for: * Diarrhea * Abdominal pain * Weight loss * Malnutrition * Fistulas Ulcerative colitis Watch for: * Bloody diarrhea * Abdominal cramps * Urgency * Risk of toxic megacolon ⸻ Diverticulitis Inflammation/infection of diverticula. Signs: * Usually LLQ abdominal pain * Fever * Change in bowel habits During acute inflammation: * Follow prescribed bowel-rest/diet plan * Monitor pain, fever and abdominal status * Watch for perforation/peritonitis ⸻ Colorectal Cancer Red flags: * Change in bowel habits * Blood in stool * Unexplained weight loss * Iron-deficiency anemia * Abdominal discomfort Important: Screening is important even before symptoms occur. ⸻ Constipation Risk factors: * Opioids * Immobility * Low fluid intake * Low fibre * Some medications Management: * Fluids if not contraindicated * Fibre * Activity * Bowel routine * Appropriate laxatives/stool softeners ⸻ Diarrhea Priority concerns: Fluid + electrolytes + cause Assess: * Frequency * Stool characteristics * Blood * Fever * Abdominal pain * Hydration * Recent antibiotics/travel/exposure ⸻ Peptic Ulcer Disease Major complications: * Bleeding * Perforation * Gastric outlet obstruction Warning signs: * Hematemesis * Melena * Sudden severe abdominal pain * Rigid abdomen Common causes: * H. pylori * NSAIDs ⸻ Appendicitis Classic: * Pain may begin around umbilicus and migrate to RLQ * Fever * Nausea/vomiting * Rebound/guarding may occur Priority Prevent rupture. Avoid: * Laxatives * Enemas * Applying heat to abdomen ⸻ 🚰 5. RENAL SYSTEM UTI Symptoms: * Dysuria * Frequency * Urgency * Suprapubic discomfort If infection reaches kidneys: * Fever * Flank pain * Chills * Nausea/vomiting Nursing * Obtain urine specimen correctly * Culture before antibiotics when ordered/appropriate * Encourage fluids if not contraindicated * Complete antibiotics ⸻ Renal Failure Major problems: Think: * Fluid overload * Electrolyte imbalance * Acid-base imbalance * Uremia * Anemia Possible findings: * Edema * Hypertension * Fatigue * Decreased urine output * Nausea * Confusion Particularly important: Hyperkalemia can cause life-threatening dysrhythmias. ⸻ Dialysis Hemodialysis Blood is filtered through a machine. Assess: * Weight * BP * Fluid status * Access site AV fistula Remember: “Feel + Hear” * Thrill → feel it * Bruit → hear it Protect the access: * No BP on that arm * No blood draws on that arm when avoidable * Don’t compress unnecessarily ⸻ Incontinence Types: Stress → coughing/sneezing Urge → sudden strong urge Overflow → bladder doesn’t empty Functional → can’t get to toilet Mixed → combination Management depends on cause. ⸻ 🫁 6. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM COPD Includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Common: * Dyspnea * Chronic cough * Sputum * Wheezing * Reduced exercise tolerance Nursing: * Position upright * Pursed-lip breathing * Energy conservation * Smoking cessation * Oxygen as prescribed * Inhaler technique Don’t automatically assume oxygen should be withheld from COPD patients. Oxygen is prescribed/titrated according to the patient’s clinical status and target saturation. ⸻ Asthma Usually reversible airway obstruction/inflammation. Symptoms: * Wheezing * Cough * Dyspnea * Chest tightness Rescue medication Short-acting bronchodilator, e.g. salbutamol. Controller Often: Inhaled corticosteroid Severe attack Red flags: * Difficulty speaking * Severe respiratory distress * Exhaustion * Altered LOC * Silent chest Silent chest = very serious. ⸻ Pneumonia Signs: * Fever * Cough * Sputum * Dyspnea * Crackles * Pleuritic chest pain Nursing: * Oxygen if needed * Antibiotics if bacterial/ordered * Hydration if appropriate * Mobilization * Cough/deep breathing * Monitor respiratory status ⸻ Lung Cancer Risk factors: * Smoking * Environmental/occupational exposures Symptoms: * Persistent cough * Hemoptysis * Weight loss * Dyspnea * Chest pain ⸻ Tuberculosis Classic: * Persistent cough * Fever * Night sweats * Weight loss * Possible hemoptysis Nursing priority Airborne precautions for suspected/confirmed infectious pulmonary TB according to institutional policy. ⸻ Atelectasis Collapsed alveoli, often after surgery. Prevention: * Deep breathing * Coughing * Incentive spirometry * Early mobilization * Adequate pain control ⸻ Pneumothorax Air in pleural space → lung collapse. Possible: * Sudden dyspnea * Chest pain * Decreased/absent breath sounds Tension pneumothorax Emergency. May cause: * Severe respiratory distress * Hypotension * Distended neck veins * Tracheal deviation * Cardiovascular collapse Requires immediate emergency treatment. ⸻ Hemothorax Blood in pleural space. Think: Respiratory compromise + blood loss. Chest tube may be required. ⸻ 🦴 7. MUSCULOSKELETAL Osteoporosis Loss of bone density. Risk: * Fractures * Vertebral compression * Hip fracture Prevention: * Weight-bearing activity * Calcium/vitamin D as appropriate * Fall prevention * Avoid smoking * Limit excessive alcohol ⸻ Fractures Priority: ABCs → bleeding → neurovascular status Assess the 6 Ps: * Pain * Pallor * Pulselessness * Paresthesia * Paralysis * Poikilothermia/coolness Neurovascular assessment is critical. ⸻ Arthritis Osteoarthritis Think: Wear and tear * Pain with activity * Stiffness * Often affects weight-bearing joints Rheumatoid arthritis Think: Autoimmune * Symmetrical joint involvement * Morning stiffness * Systemic effects ⸻ Scoliosis Abnormal lateral curvature of spine. Assess: * Posture * Shoulder/hip asymmetry * Spinal curvature * Respiratory effects if severe ⸻ Multiple Sclerosis Autoimmune demyelinating disease affecting CNS. Possible: * Weakness * Fatigue * Visual disturbances * Sensory changes * Balance problems * Bladder dysfunction Important nursing concept: Fatigue and heat can worsen symptoms. ⸻ 🦠 8. INFECTION/IMMUNE SYSTEM MRSA Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Key: * Resistant to several antibiotics * Contact precautions may be required * Strict hand hygiene ⸻ VRE Vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Key: * Resistant organism * Contact precautions according to facility policy * Hand hygiene * Environmental cleaning ⸻ C. difficile Often associated with antibiotic exposure. Symptoms: * Frequent watery diarrhea * Abdominal cramping * Fever VERY IMPORTANT Soap and water handwashing is preferred because alcohol-based hand sanitizer does not reliably kill C. difficile spores. Use appropriate contact/spore precautions according to facility policy. ⸻ Influenza * Fever * Cough * Myalgias * Fatigue * Headache Prevention: Annual vaccination + respiratory hygiene. ⸻ Sepsis Think: Infection + organ dysfunction Potential signs: * Fever or hypothermia * Tachycardia * Tachypnea * Altered mental status * Hypotension * Reduced urine output * Elevated lactate Nursing priority Recognize early and escalate rapidly. Expect: * Cultures * Lactate * IV fluids when indicated * Prompt antimicrobials when sepsis is suspected * Source control * Frequent reassessment ⸻ 🔬 9. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Don’t memorize only the test. For every test ask: 1. Why is it being done? 2. What does it tell me? 3. What does the nurse do before? 4. What does the nurse do after? 5. What complications should I watch for? ⸻ CT Uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images. Contrast may be used. Nursing: * Check allergies/previous contrast reactions * Assess kidney function when appropriate * Follow contrast-specific instructions ⸻ MRI Uses magnetic field. NO metal/unsafe metallic objects. Assess: * Implanted devices * Metal fragments * Claustrophobia ⸻ X-ray Useful for: * Fractures * Chest conditions * Some abdominal problems ⸻ Ultrasound Uses sound waves. Common: * Pregnancy * Abdomen * Pelvis * Blood vessels No ionizing radiation. ⸻ Mammogram Breast imaging for screening/assessment. ⸻ Endoscopy Allows direct visualization of GI tract. Nursing: * Usually NPO beforehand * Sedation may be used * Monitor airway and vital signs afterward * Ensure gag/swallow reflex has returned before oral intake when applicable ⸻ Bronchoscopy Visualizes airways. Post-procedure: * Monitor respiratory status * Watch for bleeding * Keep NPO until protective reflexes return if sedated/topical anesthetic used ⸻ Pulmonary Function Tests Measure lung function. Important for: * Asthma * COPD * Other pulmonary disorders ⸻ 🧪 10. LABORATORY VALUES For exams, know what the lab means, not just the number. CBC Hemoglobin/Hematocrit Think: oxygen-carrying capacity Low → anemia/bleeding/etc. WBC Think: infection/inflammation/immune response Platelets Think: clotting Low → bleeding risk. ⸻ INR Measures effect of warfarin therapy. Higher INR generally = increased anticoagulation and bleeding risk. Monitor for: * Bleeding * Bruising * Hematuria * Melena ⸻ Glucose Think: current blood glucose ⸻ HbA1c Think: “3-month-ish glucose picture.” Used for longer-term diabetes management. ⸻ BUN + Creatinine Think: Kidney function. Creatinine is particularly useful when evaluating renal function. ⸻ GFR Estimates kidney filtration. Lower GFR generally = worse kidney function. ⸻ Electrolytes Sodium Think: water balance + neurological function Potassium Think: heart rhythm Abnormal potassium can cause dangerous dysrhythmias. Calcium Think: bones + muscles + nerves ⸻ Cholesterol LDL “Lousy” cholesterol Higher LDL → increased cardiovascular risk. HDL “Healthy” cholesterol Generally protective. ⸻ Urinalysis Can help identify: * UTI * Protein * Blood * Glucose * Ketones * Kidney problems ⸻ Culture & Sensitivity Culture = What organism? Sensitivity = Which antibiotic is effective? ⸻ 💊 11. PHARMACOLOGY For every medication, memorize: Class → Why given → Major adverse effects → Contraindications/precautions → Nursing assessments → Patient teaching ⸻ Acetaminophen (Tylenol) Used for: * Pain * Fever Major concern: Liver toxicity with excessive dosing. ⸻ NSAIDs Examples: * Ibuprofen * Naproxen Watch for: * GI bleeding * Kidney injury * Fluid retention * Cardiovascular risks ⸻ Morphine Opioid. Watch: * Respiratory depression * Sedation * Hypotension * Constipation * Nausea Antidote for opioid-induced respiratory depression: Naloxone ⸻ Antibiotics Key nursing principle: Complete the prescribed course unless directed otherwise. Watch: * Allergic reactions * Diarrhea * Superinfection * C. difficile ⸻ Warfarin (Coumadin) Anticoagulant. Monitor: INR Major complication: Bleeding Teaching: * Consistent vitamin K intake rather than suddenly changing intake * Drug interactions matter * Report unusual bleeding ⸻ Heparin Anticoagulant. Monitor: * Bleeding * Platelets * aPTT for unfractionated heparin, depending on protocol Major complication: Bleeding Important adverse reaction: HIT – heparin-induced thrombocytopenia ⸻ Insulin Major adverse effect: HYPOGLYCEMIA Know: * Onset * Peak * Duration * Administration technique * Glucose monitoring ⸻ Nitroglycerin Used for angina. Can cause: * Headache * Hypotension * Dizziness Avoid with PDE-5 inhibitors. ⸻ Digoxin Remember: “Slow heart + low potassium = danger.” Monitor: * Apical pulse * Potassium * Signs of toxicity ⸻ Diuretics Example: Furosemide (Lasix) Causes: * Increased urine output * Decreased fluid volume Watch: * BP * Electrolytes * Dehydration * Potassium ⸻ Corticosteroids Example: Prednisone Long-term effects: * Infection risk * Hyperglycemia * Osteoporosis * Fluid retention * Skin changes * Adrenal suppression Do not abruptly stop long-term corticosteroids without medical direction. ⸻ Bronchodilators Example: Salbutamol Can cause: * Tremor * Tachycardia * Nervousness ⸻ Inhaled corticosteroids Important: Rinse mouth after use. Helps prevent oral candidiasis. ⸻ Statins Example: Atorvastatin Used to lower cholesterol. Watch: * Muscle pain/weakness * Liver-related adverse effects ⸻ Stool medications Psyllium Bulk-forming. Requires adequate fluid intake unless contraindicated. Docusate Stool softener. Stimulant laxatives Increase intestinal motility. ⸻ 🧠 12. NEUROLOGICAL Seizure During seizure: Protect, don’t restrain. * Protect from injury * Turn to side if possible * Protect airway * Remove nearby hazards * Don’t put anything in mouth * Time the seizure After: * Assess airway * Vital signs * Neurological status * Document characteristics Status epilepticus Emergency. ⸻ Increased Intracranial Pressure Think: Headache + vomiting + decreased LOC + pupil changes Late sign: Cushing’s triad * Increased BP/widened pulse pressure * Bradycardia * Irregular respirations Nursing: * Elevate head as ordered * Maintain neutral neck alignment * Avoid unnecessary stimulation * Monitor neurological status * Prevent hypoxia/hypercapnia ⸻ Parkinson’s Disease Classic: TRAP T – Tremor R – Rigidity A – Akinesia/bradykinesia P – Postural instability Nursing: * Fall prevention * Mobility support * Medication timing * Swallowing assessment * Nutrition ⸻ Spinal Cord Injury Priority: Airway + breathing + immobilization + neurological assessment Possible complications: * Neurogenic shock * Autonomic dysreflexia * Respiratory compromise * Loss of bowel/bladder control * Pressure injuries Autonomic dysreflexia Usually associated with injuries at/above T6. Signs: * Sudden severe hypertension * Headache * Flushing/sweating above injury * Bradycardia Priority: Sit patient upright and identify/remove the trigger. ⸻ 👁️ 13. SENSORY Cataracts Clouding of lens. Symptoms: * Blurred vision * Glare * Reduced visual acuity Treatment: Surgical removal when significantly affecting vision. ⸻ Glaucoma Optic nerve damage often associated with increased intraocular pressure. Key distinction: Glaucoma → pressure/optic nerve Cataract → cloudy lens Acute angle-closure glaucoma: * Severe eye pain * Headache * Halos * Nausea/vomiting * Red eye Emergency. ⸻ Hearing Loss Conductive Problem with sound transmission through outer/middle ear. Sensorineural Problem involving inner ear/auditory nerve. Communication: * Face patient * Speak clearly * Don’t shout * Reduce background noise * Verify understanding ⸻ 🔥 14. BURNS Think: Airway → Breathing → Circulation Inhalation injury Red flags: * Facial burns * Soot * Singed nasal hairs * Hoarseness * Stridor * Carbonaceous sputum Airway edema can worsen rapidly. ⸻ Burn priorities * Airway * Breathing * Circulation * Fluid resuscitation for significant burns * Pain management * Infection prevention * Temperature control * Nutrition * Wound care ⸻ 15. WOMEN’S & MEN’S HEALTH Menopause Decrease in estrogen. Common: * Hot flashes * Night sweats * Sleep problems * Vaginal dryness * Mood changes Long-term: * Bone loss * Cardiovascular considerations ⸻ Birth Control Know: * Effectiveness * How it is used * Contraindications * STI protection Most hormonal birth control does NOT protect against STIs. Condoms help reduce STI transmission. ⸻ STIs Examples: * Chlamydia * Gonorrhea * Syphilis * HPV * Herpes * HIV Nursing: * Testing * Treatment adherence * Partner notification/treatment when appropriate * Safer sex education * Prevention ⸻ Breast Cancer Warning signs: * New breast lump * Skin changes * Nipple changes/discharge * Axillary lymph node changes Know current screening recommendations and individual risk factors. ⸻ Prostate Cancer Possible: * Urinary hesitancy * Weak stream * Frequency * Hematuria Important: Early prostate cancer may have no symptoms. ⸻ 🚨 16. EMERGENCY NURSING Shock Basic concept: Tissues aren’t receiving enough oxygen/perfusion. Signs: * Tachycardia * Hypotension * Altered LOC * Cool/clammy skin in many shock states * Decreased urine output * Tachypnea Major types Hypovolemic → blood/fluid loss Cardiogenic → pump failure Distributive → vasodilation (e.g., septic/anaphylactic) Obstructive → obstruction to circulation Priority: ABCs + identify/treat cause + restore perfusion. ⸻ Hemorrhage Look for: * Tachycardia * Hypotension * Pallor * Weakness * Decreased LOC * Decreased urine output Priority: Control bleeding + support circulation + escalate. ⸻ Anaphylaxis Severe allergic reaction. Signs: * Airway swelling * Wheezing * Dyspnea * Hypotension * Hives * GI symptoms FIRST-LINE MEDICATION: IM epinephrine Do not delay epinephrine while waiting for other treatments. ⸻ 💧 17. FLUID & ELECTROLYTES Dehydration Signs: * Thirst * Dry mucous membranes * Tachycardia * Hypotension * Poor skin turgor * Decreased urine output * Weight loss ⸻ Fluid overload Signs: * Edema * Crackles * Dyspnea * Weight gain * JVD * Hypertension ⸻ Potassium Hypokalemia Think: Weak + irregular heart Causes: * Diuretics * GI losses Hyperkalemia Think: Dangerous heart rhythm Causes: * Renal failure * Tissue breakdown * Certain medications ⸻ Acid-Base Use: ROME Respiratory = Opposite Metabolic = Equal Examples: Respiratory acidosis CO₂ ↑ → pH ↓ Respiratory alkalosis CO₂ ↓ → pH ↑ Metabolic acidosis HCO₃ ↓ → pH ↓ Metabolic alkalosis HCO₃ ↑ → pH ↑ ⸻ 👶 MATERNAL-CHILD NURSING Prenatal Care Monitor: * Maternal vital signs * Weight * Blood pressure * Urine * Fetal growth * Fetal heart rate * Laboratory screening * Risk factors Important warning signs: * Vaginal bleeding * Severe headache * Visual changes * Severe abdominal pain * Fluid leakage * Decreased fetal movement * Sudden swelling/other signs of hypertensive disorders ⸻ Fetal Development High-yield concept: First trimester → organ formation Second trimester → growth and development Third trimester → maturation and preparation for birth ⸻ Labour Stage 1 Onset of true labour → complete cervical dilation. Stage 2 Complete dilation → birth of baby. Stage 3 Birth of baby → delivery of placenta. Stage 4 Immediate postpartum recovery. ⸻ Apgar At approximately 1 and 5 minutes. A P G A R A – Appearance P – Pulse G – Grimace A – Activity R – Respiration Each scored 0–2. Apgar helps assess newborn adaptation; it does not by itself diagnose asphyxia or determine long-term prognosis. ⸻ Newborn Assessment Assess: * Respiratory effort * Heart rate * Temperature * Colour * Tone * Feeding * Reflexes * Weight * Head circumference * Urine/stool ⸻ Breastfeeding Benefits: * Nutrition * Immune protection * Bonding Signs of effective feeding: * Good latch * Audible swallowing * Appropriate wet/dirty diapers * Expected weight pattern ⸻ 👶 PEDIATRIC NURSING Development General progression: Head → toe Simple → complex Large muscles → fine motor Always consider developmental stage when communicating with children. ⸻ Pediatric Safety Big priorities: * Falls * Choking * Burns * Poisoning * Drowning * Car-seat safety * Medication dosing * Safe sleep Medication principle Pediatric medications are often based on: weight (kg) Always verify calculations and concentrations. ⸻ Pediatric Asthma Same basic principles as adults: * Bronchodilator for acute symptoms * Controller medications for long-term control * Trigger avoidance * Asthma action plan ⸻ RSV Common in infants/young children. Signs: * Rhinorrhea * Cough * Wheezing * Increased work of breathing * Poor feeding Priority: Respiratory assessment and hydration. ⸻ Croup Classic: Barking cough + stridor Often worse at night. Severe respiratory distress requires urgent intervention. ⸻ Cystic Fibrosis Thick secretions affect lungs and GI system. Think: “Thick mucus + lung infections + malabsorption.” Nursing: * Airway clearance * Nutrition * Pancreatic enzymes when prescribed * High-calorie/high-protein nutrition * Infection prevention ⸻ Gastroenteritis Major concern: Dehydration. Assess: * Wet diapers/urine * Mucous membranes * Tears * Capillary refill * Weight * Activity/LOC ⸻ Pyloric Stenosis Classic: Projectile, non-bilious vomiting Often occurs in young infants. Possible: * Hunger after vomiting * Dehydration * Weight loss ⸻ ASD vs VSD ASD Hole between atria. VSD Hole between ventricles. VSD can produce: A significant murmur and increased pulmonary blood flow. ⸻ Sickle Cell Disease Problem: Abnormal hemoglobin → sickled RBCs → vaso-occlusion and hemolysis. Crisis triggers: * Dehydration * Infection * Hypoxia * Stress Management: * Hydration * Oxygen if hypoxemic * Pain management * Treat infection * Rest * Disease-specific therapies ⸻ Meningitis Think: Fever + headache + stiff neck + altered mental status May also have: * Photophobia * Vomiting * Seizures Emergency. Use appropriate isolation precautions according to suspected organism and institutional policy. ⸻ Hydrocephalus Excess CSF. Infants may have: * Increasing head circumference * Bulging fontanelle * Irritability * Poor feeding * “Sunsetting” eyes Older children: * Headache * Vomiting * Visual changes * Altered LOC ⸻ 🧠 MENTAL HEALTH NURSING Therapeutic Communication DO: * Use open-ended questions * Listen * Reflect * Clarify * Validate feelings * Maintain appropriate boundaries DON’T: * Give false reassurance * Judge * Argue * Give excessive advice * Say “everything will be fine” ⸻ Depression Symptoms: * Persistent sadness * Anhedonia * Sleep changes * Appetite changes * Fatigue * Poor concentration * Feelings of worthlessness * Suicidal thoughts Nursing priority: Assess suicide risk directly. ⸻ Bipolar Disorder Mania * Elevated/irritable mood * Increased energy * Decreased need for sleep * Rapid speech * Impulsivity * Grandiosity Nursing: * Reduce stimulation * Maintain safety * Set clear limits * Encourage nutrition/hydration * Administer medications as prescribed ⸻ Schizophrenia Positive symptoms: * Hallucinations * Delusions * Disorganized speech/behaviour Negative symptoms: * Flat affect * Social withdrawal * Reduced motivation Communication Don’t argue with delusions. Instead: Acknowledge the patient’s feelings while presenting reality. ⸻ OCD Obsessions: Intrusive thoughts Compulsions: Repetitive behaviours/mental acts ⸻ Eating Disorders Watch: * Electrolytes * Cardiac rhythm * Nutrition * Weight * Refeeding complications * Psychological safety ⸻ Substance Use Priorities: * Airway/breathing/circulation * Overdose recognition * Withdrawal * Safety * Nonjudgmental communication ⸻ 🧪 HIGH-YIELD DIAGNOSTIC TEST THINKING When you see a test question, ask: “Why are they ordering this?” Examples: CT head after sudden neurological deficit → looking for bleeding/structural abnormalities. MRI → detailed soft tissue/neurological/musculoskeletal imaging. ECG → electrical activity/ischemia/dysrhythmia. Troponin → myocardial injury. HbA1c → long-term glucose control. Creatinine/GFR → kidney function. INR → warfarin effect. Culture and sensitivity → organism + effective antimicrobial. Pulmonary function test → lung function/obstruction/restriction. ⸻ 💊 PHARMACOLOGY MASTER MEMORY MAP Instead of memorizing 100 medications individually, memorize the danger associated with each class: Drug/Class Think Insulin Hypoglycemia Opioids Respiratory depression Warfarin Bleeding + INR Heparin Bleeding + HIT Furosemide Fluid/electrolyte loss Digoxin Bradycardia/toxicity ACE inhibitors Hyperkalemia + cough/angioedema Beta blockers Bradycardia/hypotension Steroids Hyperglycemia + infection NSAIDs GI bleeding + kidney injury Statins Muscle/liver effects Bronchodilators Tachycardia/tremor Inhaled steroids Oral candidiasis Antibiotics Allergy + C. diff ⸻ 🚨 THE “PRIORITY QUESTION” METHOD When you’re stuck on an exam question, ask: 1. Is the airway threatened? If yes → AIRWAY 2. Is breathing compromised? If yes → BREATHING 3. Is circulation/perfusion compromised? If yes → CIRCULATION 4. Is there an acute neurological deterioration? Think neurological emergency. 5. Is there a safety risk? Falls, suicide, aspiration, seizures, etc. 6. Which patient is deteriorating? Unstable beats stable. ⸻ ⭐ TOP THINGS I WOULD MEMORIZE FIRST If you have limited study time, prioritize these: 🚨 Emergencies * Anaphylaxis → IM epinephrine * Stroke → BE FAST + last known well * MI → ECG + rapid intervention * Sepsis → early recognition + rapid treatment * Tension pneumothorax → emergency * Severe hypoglycemia → rapid glucose treatment * Status epilepticus → emergency * Increased ICP → neurological deterioration * Hemorrhage → control bleeding + perfusion * Severe burns → ABCs 💊 Medications * Insulin → hypoglycemia * Morphine → respiratory depression * Warfarin → INR/bleeding * Heparin → bleeding/HIT * Digoxin → pulse/potassium/toxicity * Furosemide → fluid/electrolytes * Nitroglycerin → hypotension + PDE-5 interaction * Steroids → infection/hyperglycemia * Antibiotics → allergy/C. diff * Inhaled steroids → rinse mouth 🧪 Labs * Hb → oxygen carrying * WBC → infection/immune response * Platelets → bleeding/clotting * INR → warfarin * Glucose → current sugar * HbA1c → long-term glucose * Creatinine/GFR → kidney * K⁺ → heart rhythm * Na⁺ → neurological/fluid balance * Culture → organism * Sensitivity → antibiotic choice 🩺 Nursing skills * Infection control * Medication administration * IVs * Oxygen * Suction * Tracheostomy * Chest tubes * Urinary catheter * Wound care * Ostomy care * Vital signs * Neurovascular assessment * Respiratory assessment ⸻ 📚 How I’d recommend studying this huge syllabus Don’t try to study all of these diseases in one sitting. Use system blocks: Day 1: Diabetes + cardiovascular Day 2: Respiratory + renal Day 3: GI + liver Day 4: Hematology + immune/infection Day 5: Neuro + musculoskeletal Day 6: Maternal/newborn Day 7: Pediatrics Day 8: Mental health Day 9: Pharmacology Day 10: Labs + diagnostics + clinical skills Day 11: Emergency/priority questions Day 12: Full mixed practice exam + review weak areas For each condition, make yourself answer only 5 questions: 1. What is happening? 2. What will I assess? 3. What is the biggest complication? 4. What will I do first? 5. What do I teach the patient? That approach will help you think like a nurse rather than memorize isolated facts, which matches the study framework you were given.

D2 3.1 Tierwelten: ein Tier adoptieren

ANew Habit That Changed Daily klara av از پسِ چیزی برآمدن | Jag klarar av det. i längden در درازمدت | Det fungerar inte i längden. en sak i taget هر بار یک کار | Jag försöker göra en sak i taget. fokusera på تمرکز کردن روی | Jag måste fokusera på mina studier. fokusera helt på کاملاً تمرکز کردن روی | Hon fokuserar helt på jobbet. studielån وام دانشجویی | Han vill inte ta studielån. ta studielån وام دانشجویی گرفتن | Hon måste ta studielån. sina studier تحصیلات / درس‌های خودش | Han fokuserar på sina studier. tacka ja till پذیرفتن / قبول کردن | Hon tackade ja till jobbet. tacka nej till رد کردن / نپذیرفتن | Jag tackade nej till erbjudandet. tro på به کسی/چیزی باور داشتن | Jag tror på dig. vara bra på در چیزی خوب بودن | Hon är bra på svenska. vara dålig på در چیزی ضعیف بودن | Jag är dålig på att komma ihåg namn. ha tid وقت داشتن | Jag har inte tid idag. ta tid زمان بردن | Det tar tid att lära sig svenska. ha bråttom عجله داشتن | Jag har bråttom till jobbet. ta det lugnt آرام گرفتن / سخت نگرفتن | Ta det lugnt, vi har tid. vara på väg در راه بودن | Jag är på väg hem. komma fram رسیدن | Vi kom fram klockan åtta. gå hem به خانه رفتن | Jag går hem efter jobbet. gå ut بیرون رفتن | Vi går ut en stund. gå in داخل رفتن | Kan vi gå in nu? gå upp بلند شدن / بالا رفتن | Jag går upp klockan sju. gå och lägga sig رفتن برای خوابیدن | Jag går och lägger mig tidigt. somna خوابش بردن | Jag somnade på soffan. vakna till کاملاً بیدار شدن / به خود آمدن | Jag behöver kaffe för att vakna till. se fram emot مشتاقانه منتظر چیزی بودن | Jag ser fram emot helgen. längta efter دلتنگ / مشتاق چیزی بودن | Jag längtar efter sommaren. ha lust att میل داشتن به | Jag har lust att gå ut. känna för حوصله / میل چیزی داشتن | Jag känner för en kopp kaffe. orka med توان و انرژیِ انجام چیزی را داشتن | Jag orkar inte med mer idag. ge upp تسلیم شدن | Ge inte upp! försöka igen دوباره تلاش کردن | Jag ska försöka igen. göra sitt bästa تمام تلاش خود را کردن | Jag gör mitt bästa. passa på از فرصت استفاده کردن | Jag passar på att vila. hinna med وقت کردن / رسیدن به انجام کاری | Jag hinner inte med allt idag. vara klar med تمام کردن / کار چیزی تمام بودن | Jag är klar med läxan. bli färdig med تمام کردن | Jag måste bli färdig med arbetet. hålla på med مشغولِ کاری بودن | Vad håller du på med? börja med با چیزی شروع کردن | Vi börjar med den första frågan. sluta med دست کشیدن از / تمام کردن با | Jag vill sluta med den vanan. fortsätta med ادامه دادن | Jag vill fortsätta med svenska. lära sig یاد گرفتن | Jag lär mig svenska. komma ihåg به یاد آوردن / یادش بودن | Kom ihåg att ringa mig. glömma bort فراموش کردن | Jag glömde bort mötet. ta reda på اطلاعات پیدا کردن / فهمیدن | Jag ska ta reda på det. få reda på باخبر شدن / فهمیدن | Jag fick reda på det igår. veta om اطلاع داشتن از | Jag vet inte om det. ha koll på حواسش به چیزی بودن / مسلط بودن | Jag har koll på tiden. hålla koll på زیر نظر داشتن / حواسش به چیزی بودن | Kan du hålla koll på väskan? tänka på فکر کردن به | Jag tänker på min familj. fundera på فکر و بررسی کردن | Jag funderar på att byta jobb. bestämma sig för تصمیم گرفتن برای | Jag har bestämt mig för att studera. ändra sig نظرش را عوض کردن | Jag ändrade mig. hålla med موافق بودن | Jag håller med dig. hålla inte med موافق نبودن | Jag håller inte med. tycka om دوست داشتن | Jag tycker om den här boken. vara intresserad av علاقه‌مند بودن به | Jag är intresserad av språk. bry sig om اهمیت دادن / اهمیت قائل شدن | Hon bryr sig om sina vänner. vara rädd för ترسیدن از | Jag är rädd för att göra fel. vara orolig för نگران بودن درباره | Jag är orolig för provet. känna sig stressad احساس استرس داشتن | Jag känner mig stressad idag. känna sig trött احساس خستگی کردن | Jag känner mig trött. känna sig bättre احساس بهتر داشتن | Jag känner mig bättre idag. bli glad خوشحال شدن | Jag blir glad när du ringer. bli ledsen ناراحت شدن | Hon blev ledsen. bli arg عصبانی شدن | Han blev arg på mig. vara nöjd med از چیزی راضی بودن | Jag är nöjd med resultatet. vara stolt över به چیزی/کسی افتخار کردن | Jag är stolt över dig. ha rätt حق داشتن / درست گفتن | Du har rätt. ha fel اشتباه کردن / اشتباه بودن | Jag hade fel. det beror på بستگی دارد | Det beror på situationen. det spelar ingen roll مهم نیست / فرقی نمی‌کند | Det spelar ingen roll. det är ingen fara اشکالی ندارد / نگران نباش | Det är ingen fara. det är lugnt اشکالی نیست / همه‌چیز خوب است | Det är lugnt. det är kört دیگر کار تمام است / امیدی نیست | Om vi missar tåget är det kört. det går bra خوب پیش می‌رود / اشکالی ندارد | Det går bra för mig. det går inte نمی‌شود / امکان ندارد | Det går inte idag. det låter bra خوب به نظر می‌رسد | Det låter bra! det känns bra حس خوبی دارد | Det känns bra att vara här. det ser bra ut خوب به نظر می‌رسد | Det ser bra ut. ha möjlighet att امکان انجام کاری داشتن | Jag har möjlighet att jobba hemifrån. få möjlighet att فرصت / امکان پیدا کردن | Jag fick möjlighet att studera. vara tvungen att مجبور بودن | Jag är tvungen att gå nu. behöva hjälp به کمک نیاز داشتن | Jag behöver hjälp med uppgiften. be om hjälp درخواست کمک کردن | Du kan be läraren om hjälp. hjälpa till کمک کردن | Kan du hjälpa till? ta hand om مراقبت کردن از | Jag tar hand om barnen. hämta från از جایی دنبال کسی/چیزی رفتن | Jag hämtar min dotter från skolan. lämna på کسی را جایی رساندن / گذاشتن | Jag lämnar barnen på skolan. komma överens به توافق رسیدن / با هم کنار آمدن | Vi kommer bra överens. prata om درباره چیزی صحبت کردن | Vi behöver prata om det. fråga om درباره چیزی پرسیدن / درخواست کردن | Jag frågade om jobbet. svara på پاسخ دادن به | Kan du svara på frågan? lyssna på گوش دادن به | Jag lyssnar på musik. titta på تماشا کردن / نگاه کردن به | Vi tittar på tv. vänta på منتظر کسی/چیزی بودن | Jag väntar på bussen. leta efter دنبال چیزی گشتن | Jag letar efter mina nycklar. hitta på چیزی придум کردن / برنامه‌ای ترتیب دادن | Vi hittar på något i helgen. vara med om تجربه کردن / شاهد چیزی بودن | Jag har varit med om mycket. Life: A Study Guide to Language Acquisition

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GCSE Higher vocab 10 (verbs)

GCSE Higher vocab 9 (nouns)

GCSE higher vocab 8 (nouns)

GCSE Higher Vocab 3 (nouns)

GCSE Higher Vocab 4 (nouns)

GCSE Higher Vocab 7 (nouns)