Results for "deductive reasoning"

Ch. 12 Deductive Reasoning & Decision-Making

HOMEOSTASIS Maintaining a stable internal environment respond to stimuli Reacting to changes in the environment reproduce and develop Creating new organisms and growing adapt and evolve Changing over time to better suit the environment INDUCTIVE REASONING Making generalizations based on specific observations DEDUCTIVE REASONING Making specific predictions based on general principles Matter Anything that has mass and takes up space elements Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances protons Positively charged particles in the nucleus neutrons Neutral particles in the nucleus electrons Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus Atomic Number Number of protons in an atom Isotopes Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons Octet Rule Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a full outer shell of 8 electrons molecule Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds compound A substance consisting of two or more different elements IONIC BONDS Bonds formed by the transfer of electrons COVALENT BONDS Bonds formed by the sharing of electrons reactants Starting materials in a chemical reaction products Ending materials in a chemical reaction WATER solvent Dissolves many substances WATER cohesion & adhesion Water molecules stick to each other and other surfaces WATER high surface tension Water's surface resists being broken WATER high heat capacity Water can absorb a lot of heat without changing temperature WATER heat of vaporization Water requires a lot of energy to evaporate WATER varying density Ice is less dense than liquid water acidic solutions Solutions with a pH below 7 basic solutions Solutions with a pH above 7 pH scale Measures the acidity or basicity of a solution buffers Substances that resist changes in pH Organic Molecules Molecules containing carbon carbon The backbone of organic molecules functional groups Chemical groups attached to carbon that give molecules specific properties Macromolecules Large molecules made up of smaller subunits monomers The individual subunits of a polymer polymers Long chains of monomers Dehydration Synthesis Reaction Joins monomers by removing water Hydrolysis Reaction Breaks polymers by adding water Role of Enzymes Speed up chemical reactions Carbohydrates monosaccharides glucose Simple sugars Carbohydrates disaccharides glycosidic bonds Two monosaccharides joined together Carbohydrates polysaccharides starch glycogen cellulose Many monosaccharides joined together LIPIDS Glycerol & Fatty Acids saturated Fatty acids with no double bonds LIPIDS Glycerol & Fatty Acids unsaturated Fatty acids with double bonds PROTEINS Enzymes Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions PROTEINS amino acids peptide bonds The monomers of proteins, joined together PROTEINS protein structure primary The sequence of amino acids PROTEINS protein structure secondary Local folding patterns (e.g., alpha-helices and beta-sheets) PROTEINS protein structure tertiary The overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide PROTEINS protein structure quaternary The arrangement of multiple polypeptides in a protein conformation The 3D shape of a protein denaturation The unfolding of a protein DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic material RNA Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis ATP Adenosine triphosphate, the energy currency of the cell

1. Allegory • Definition: A narrative in which characters and events symbolically represent deeper truths or general ideas about human existence (often moral, political, or social). • Example: Animal Farm by George Orwell is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and subsequent political developments. • Quick Question: What hidden meaning might you look for in an allegorical story? 2. Alliteration • Definition: The repetition of initial consonant sounds in closely connected words. • Example: “She sells seashells by the seashore.” • Quick Question: Which sound is repeated in “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers”? 3. Allusion • Definition: A brief, indirect reference to a person, event, or piece of literature. • Example: “He met his Waterloo” alludes to Napoleon’s final defeat. • Quick Question: What famous historical event is hinted at with the phrase “met his Waterloo”? 4. Analogy • Definition: A comparison between two things for the purpose of explanation or clarification. • Example: “Life is like a box of chocolates—you never know what you’re gonna get.” • Quick Question: How does an analogy help in understanding a complex idea? 5. Anaphora • Definition: The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences. • Example: Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I have a dream…” speech. • Quick Question: What is the effect of repeating “I have a dream” at the start of each sentence? 6. Anticlimax • Definition: A sudden shift from a significant idea to one that is trivial or mundane, often used humorously or ironically. • Example: “He lost his family, his job, and his keys.” • Quick Question: Why might an author choose to use an anticlimax in a narrative? 7. Antithesis • Definition: Juxtaposing contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel phrases or clauses. • Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” • Quick Question: Identify the contrasting ideas in the above example. 8. Aphorism • Definition: A brief, pithy statement that expresses a general truth or observation. • Example: “Actions speak louder than words.” • Quick Question: Can you think of another common aphorism? 9. Apostrophe (Rhetorical) • Definition: A figure of speech in which the speaker addresses an absent person, abstract idea, or inanimate object as if it were present and capable of understanding. • Example: “O Death, where is thy sting?” • Quick Question: Who or what is being directly addressed in an apostrophe? 10. Apposition • Definition: Placing two elements side by side where one explains or identifies the other. • Example: “My friend, the doctor, arrived.” • Quick Question: What information does the appositive “the doctor” add? 11. Assonance • Definition: The repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words to create internal rhyming. • Example: “Hear the mellow wedding bells.” • Quick Question: Which vowel sound is repeated in “mellow” and “wedding”? 12. Asyndeton • Definition: The omission of conjunctions between parts of a sentence, often to speed up the rhythm or create an impactful effect. • Example: “I came, I saw, I conquered.” • Quick Question: How does the lack of “and” in the example affect its pace? 13. Chiasmus • Definition: A reversal in the order of words in two otherwise parallel phrases. • Example: “Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You.” • Quick Question: What is the reversed structure you notice in the example? 14. Connotation • Definition: The implied or emotional meaning of a word, beyond its literal definition. • Example: The word “home” connotes warmth and safety, not just a place where one lives. • Quick Question: How does the connotation of “home” differ from its denotation? 15. Deduction • Definition: A logical process where a conclusion is based on the concordance of multiple premises generally assumed to be true (moving from general to specific). • Example: “All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.” • Quick Question: What type of reasoning moves from general principles to a specific conclusion? 16. Denotation • Definition: The literal, dictionary definition of a word. • Example: The denotation of “snake” is a legless reptile, while its connotation may imply deceit. • Quick Question: What is the difference between denotation and connotation? 17. Ellipsis • Definition: The omission of words or a trailing off of thought, often indicated by three dots (…). • Example: “To be continued…” • Quick Question: What effect does an ellipsis have on the reader? 18. Epithet • Definition: A descriptive phrase expressing a quality or attribute of the person or thing mentioned. • Example: “Alexander the Great” uses “the Great” as an epithet to highlight his achievements. • Quick Question: How does an epithet add depth to a name or description? 19. Ethos • Definition: An appeal to ethics, credibility, or character to persuade an audience. • Example: A doctor giving medical advice relies on his/her expertise (ethos). • Quick Question: In what ways can a speaker build ethos? 20. Euphemism • Definition: A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one that is considered harsh or blunt. • Example: Saying “passed away” instead of “died.” • Quick Question: Why might someone choose to use a euphemism? 21. Figures of Speech • Definition: A broad category of literary devices that express ideas in a non-literal or imaginative way (including metaphors, similes, hyperboles, etc.). • Example: “Time flies” is a figure of speech that does not mean time literally has wings. • Quick Question: Can you name three figures of speech besides those listed here? 22. Hyperbole • Definition: Deliberate and obvious exaggeration used for emphasis or effect. • Example: “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.” • Quick Question: What is the purpose of using hyperbole in a statement? 23. Induction • Definition: A logical process that involves drawing general conclusions from specific observations (moving from specific to general). • Example: Observing that the sun has risen every morning and concluding it will rise tomorrow. • Quick Question: How does inductive reasoning differ from deductive reasoning? 24. Irony • Definition: A contrast between expectation and reality. There are several types: • Verbal irony: Saying the opposite of what is meant. • Situational irony: When events turn out contrary to what was expected. • Dramatic irony: When the audience knows more than the characters. • Example: A fire station burning down is an example of situational irony. • Quick Question: What makes irony an effective rhetorical device? 25. Litotes • Definition: An understatement that uses negation to express a positive idea, often by denying the opposite. • Example: “Not bad” to mean “good.” • Quick Question: How does litotes differ from a straightforward understatement? 26. Logos • Definition: An appeal to logic and reason, using facts, statistics, or logical arguments to persuade. • Example: A politician citing economic data to support a policy argument. • Quick Question: What kinds of evidence are most effective for a logos-based argument? Part 2: Devices 27–53 27. Metaphor • Definition: A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things by stating one is the other. • Example: “Time is a thief.” • Quick Question: How does calling time “a thief” change our understanding of it? 28. Metonymy • Definition: A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated. • Example: “The pen is mightier than the sword” (where “pen” represents writing or intellect). • Quick Question: Can you think of another example of metonymy? 29. Onomatopoeia • Definition: A word that imitates the natural sound of a thing. • Example: “Buzz,” “sizzle,” or “clang.” • Quick Question: What sound does “whisper” evoke even though it isn’t a perfect auditory mimic? 30. Oxymoron • Definition: A figure of speech in which two contradictory terms appear in conjunction. • Example: “Deafening silence.” • Quick Question: How does an oxymoron create emphasis? 31. Paradox • Definition: A statement that appears self-contradictory or absurd, yet may contain a hidden truth. • Example: “Less is more.” • Quick Question: What might “less is more” suggest about quality versus quantity? 32. Parallelism/Parallel Structure • Definition: Using components in a sentence that are grammatically similar or identical in structure, sound, or meaning. • Example: “Easy come, easy go.” • Quick Question: How does parallel structure enhance clarity in a sentence? 33. Parataxis • Definition: Placing clauses or phrases one after another without using coordinating or subordinating conjunctions. • Example: “I came, I saw, I conquered.” • Quick Question: How is parataxis similar to or different from asyndeton? 34. Parenthesis (Rhetorical) • Definition: An explanatory or qualifying word, clause, or sentence inserted into a passage as an aside. • Example: “The car, a 1967 Mustang, was in mint condition.” • Quick Question: What purpose does the parenthetical information serve in the sentence? 35. Pathos • Definition: An appeal to the audience’s emotions, aiming to evoke feelings to persuade. • Example: A charity advertisement showing images of suffering animals to elicit compassion and donations. • Quick Question: How might a speaker use pathos to strengthen an argument? 36. Periodic Sentence • Definition: A sentence that withholds its main clause or meaning until the end, creating suspense or emphasis. • Example: “Despite heavy winds and torrential rains, the expedition continued forward.” • Quick Question: What effect does a periodic sentence have on the reader? 37. Personification • Definition: Attributing human qualities or actions to non-human objects or abstract ideas. • Example: “The wind whispered through the trees.” • Quick Question: Why might a writer choose to personify nature? 38. Polysyndeton • Definition: The deliberate use of many conjunctions between clauses, often to slow the rhythm or emphasize each element. • Example: “He ran and jumped and laughed for joy.” • Quick Question: How does polysyndeton affect the pace of a sentence compared to asyndeton? 39. Proverb • Definition: A short, well-known saying that expresses a common truth or piece of advice. • Example: “A stitch in time saves nine.” • Quick Question: Can you recall another common proverb? 40. Pun • Definition: A play on words that exploits the multiple meanings or similar sounds of words for humorous or rhetorical effect. • Example: “Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.” • Quick Question: What makes a pun effective or humorous? 41. Refutation • Definition: The act of disproving an opposing argument; an essential component in debate and persuasive writing. • Example: “While my opponent argues X, the following evidence refutes that claim…” • Quick Question: Why is refutation important in persuasive writing? 42. Rhetoric • Definition: The art of effective or persuasive communication, encompassing the strategic use of language and rhetorical devices. • Example: Speeches by great orators that move audiences emotionally and intellectually. • Quick Question: How do rhetorical devices contribute to the art of rhetoric? 43. Rhetorical Question • Definition: A question asked for effect or emphasis rather than to receive an answer. • Example: “Isn’t it a bit late to be asking that now?” • Quick Question: What response is expected from the audience when a rhetorical question is used? 44. Simile • Definition: A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two different things using “like” or “as.” • Example: “Her smile was as bright as the sun.” • Quick Question: How does a simile differ from a metaphor? 45. Style • Definition: The distinctive manner in which an author uses language, including word choice, sentence structure, tone, and use of rhetorical devices. • Example: The poetic, elaborate style of Shakespeare versus the straightforward style of Ernest Hemingway. • Quick Question: What elements contribute to an author’s style? 46. Syllogism • Definition: A form of deductive reasoning that includes a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. • Example: “All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.” • Quick Question: How does a syllogism differ from other forms of argument? 47. Synaesthesia • Definition: A mixing of the senses, or the use of one sense to describe another, creating an unusual or vivid expression. • Example: “A loud color” or “a sweet sound.” • Quick Question: What is the effect of describing a color as “loud”? 48. Synecdoche • Definition: A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole or vice versa. • Example: “All hands on deck” where “hands” represent the sailors. • Quick Question: Can you identify another example where a part stands for the whole? 49. Tricolon • Definition: A series of three parallel elements (words, phrases, or clauses) used to create a memorable or dramatic effect. • Example: “Veni, vidi, vici.” • Quick Question: How does using three elements (a tricolon) affect the rhythm of a sentence? 50. Trope • Definition: A figurative or metaphorical use of a word or expression; an umbrella term for any figure of speech. • Example: Metaphors, similes, and hyperboles are all types of tropes. • Quick Question: Why might an author use tropes throughout a work? 51. Understatement • Definition: A figure of speech that minimizes the importance or magnitude of something, often for ironic or humorous effect. • Example: Saying “It’s just a scratch” when referring to a large dent in a car. • Quick Question: How can understatement be used to achieve irony? 52. Voice • Definition: The unique personality, tone, and style of a writer or speaker, reflected in word choice and syntax. • Example: The distinctive narrative voice in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye. • Quick Question: What aspects of writing contribute to an author’s voice? 53. Zeugma • Definition: A figure of speech in which one word (often a verb or adjective) applies to two or more other words in different ways. • Example: “He stole my heart and my wallet.” • Quick Question: What is the dual effect created by the word “stole” in the example? Practice Quiz Questions Use these questions to test your understanding. Try answering them before checking the answers! 1. Multiple Choice: Which sentence best demonstrates alliteration? A. “Time is a thief.” B. “She sells seashells by the seashore.” C. “Less is more.” D. “The pen is mightier than the sword.” Answer: B 2. Fill in the Blank: A comparison using “like” or “as” is known as a ________. Answer: Simile 3. True or False: A rhetorical question is asked to get an actual answer. Answer: False (It is asked for effect.) 4. Matching: Match the rhetorical device to its description: • a. Hyperbole • b. Irony • c. Personification • d. Euphemism Descriptions: 1. A mild or pleasant word used in place of one that might be considered harsh. 2. An exaggeration for effect. 3. Assigning human qualities to non-human things. 4. A contrast between what is said and what is meant or expected. Answers: • a → 2 • b → 4 • c → 3 • d → 1 5. Short Answer: Explain the difference between deduction and induction. Answer: Deduction is reasoning from general premises to a specific conclusion, while induction is reasoning from specific observations to form a general conclusion. 6. Identification: Identify the rhetorical device used in the sentence: “I came, I saw, I conquered.” Answer: This sentence uses asyndeton (omitting conjunctions) and is an example of a tricolon (three parallel elements). 7. Application: How does the use of anaphora enhance the impact of a speech? Answer: Anaphora creates rhythm and emphasis by repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of successive sentences or clauses, which can make the message more memorable and persuasive. Final Tips for Your Quiz • Read each example carefully: Ask yourself what effect the device creates and why the author might have chosen to use it. • Practice identification: Try to spot these devices in articles, speeches, or literature you read. • Explain in your own words: Being able to explain each device in your own words will deepen your understanding and prepare you to identify them on a quiz. By reviewing these definitions, examples, and practice questions, you’ll be well prepared to identify and analyze these 53 rhetorical devices on your quiz

Faith & Reason - Logical fallacies, definitions, deductive reasoning, and inductive reasoning

Nicolaus Copernicus • Made Heliocentric Theory- Star, the earth and other planets rotate around the sun Galileo Galilei • Built telescope • Proved the heliocentric theory • Faced inquisition and recanted his work Issac Newton • Made Law of Universal Gravitation •  All physical object are affected equally by the same forces • The same forces rule the motion of the planets and all matter in earth and space Rene Descartes • Wrote “discourse on method” • Made his own scientific method- scientific study should be done using deductive reasoning to test hypothesis Enlightenment- Stressed reason and thought and the power of individual to solve problems  Philosophes • The 5 concepts of their core belief were reason, nature, happiness, progress and liberty Thomas Hobbes • Convinced people were naturally selfish and wicked • Felt governments were needed to keep order  • Like the idea of the social contract Social Contract • Strong government is needed to keep citizens under control • People gave up rights to a strong leader in exchange for law and order • Hobbes felt that an absolute monarchy was the best form of government  John Locke • Believed people could learn from  experience and improvement of himself • They had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and look after the welfare of society • Believed in everyone is born with natural rights of life liberty and property • Gov is based on the consent of the governed • Believed government had the responsibility to provide these rights and people had the power to overthrow it Natural Rights- Everyone is born with basic rights that nobody (monarchy) can take Voltaire • Used satire • Targeted the clergy, upper class and government  • Fought for tolerance, freedom of religion belief and freedom of speech Montesquieu • Believed in Separation of Power because would keep any individual from gaining total control • Executive: British king and his minster • Legislative: Parliament • Judicial: The judges Rousseau • Believed civilization corrupts people's natural goodness • Wrote the “Social Contract” • Government wa an agreement among free india; to create a society and government (NOT AN AGREEMENT BETWEEN PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT) WOMEN IN ENLIGHTENMENT • Philosophes took a traditional view on the role of women • Rousseau believed a woman’s education should be to prepare her to be a wife and mother • Other males scolded women for reading, that it could cause wickedness • Wealthy women held social gatherings called salons to spread the ideas of the enlightenment Mary Wollstonecraft • argued in favor of educating women, urged women to enter male dominated fields  ROYALS
Fredrick ll of Prussia • Granted religious tolerance • Reduced the amount of torture • Allowed freedom from the press Catherine the Great of Russia • Created national school system • Brought in all nobles and townspeople for convention on how to improve russia and modernize it The Old regime- a system of feudalism left over from the middle ages THREE ESTATES The First Estate  • Roman catholic church • Owned 10% of the land • Paid 2% f their income to government Second estate • Nobility • 2% f population • Owned 20% of the land • Paid almost no tax The Third Estate • 98% of the population Bourgeoise • Merchants,doctors and professionals • Well educated and wealthy • Believed strongly in the enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality  Workers • cooks, servants, factory workers, and etc • Paid low wages and were often out of work\ Peasants • 80% of population •  paid half of their income to the nobles,church and to the king  Start of revolution Factors leading to revolution- resentment of the first and second estate Legacy of the enlightenment • People were willing to question longstanding notions about society  Economic woes • High taxes and increase in cost of living • Bad weather leading to crop failures • Government debt Louis VI and Marie Antoinette • Lovis had been forced to call a meeting of the Estates General to get approval for tax reform  • Third estate, has little voice • Third estate created a new body to pass laws and reforms in the name of the French people • end of the absolute monarchy and beginning of representatives government. Tennis Court Oath • National Assembly was locked out of their chambers  • Broke into the indoor tennis court, signed a pledge that they would remain there until they’d written a new constitution  Storming of Bastille • in 1789 • Rumors spread that the kings was bringing Swiss Guards to paris to put down unrest • Bastille was a prison and an arsenal in Paris The Great Fear • Peasants took arms against the nobles  • People marched on versailles demanding that the royal family be brought to paris where they coil be closely observed  Revolution Terror and Empire The Jacobins • A radical political group • Called for “five or six” hundred head cut off to rid france of the enemies of the Revolution • Found Louis XVI guilty for treason and had him guillotine Maximilien Robespierre • Led the jacobins in the effort to rid france of all trace of monarchy and nobility • Gathered enough power to rule france in the style of a dictator  The Reign of Terror • Revolutionary courts sent thousands to their death for the crime of being an enemy of state  • 85% of the executed were peasants or urban poor n • Placed powerThe terror ended with execution of Robespierre himself  Napoleon Start of Napolean  • the death of Robespierre ended the terror • They were looking for stability • New  Constitution in upper middle class • Appointed napoleon to command france armies COUP D’ETAT • By 1799 the director had lost control • Napoleon quickly assumed dictatorial power as the first consul of the French Republic  New Economy and Faith • Set up a fair tax code and national band • Fired corrupt official and appointed new ones  • Created public schools Napoleanic Code • Uniform set of laws that brought stability eliminated injustices • Women lost rights • Freedom of speech restricted • Slavery was restored Church and Government • Rejected church control on national affairs and allowed govt to appoint church leaders Rebellion of Saint Dominque • Loss of his colonies napoleon gave up the idea of having a empire in the new world Louisiana Purchase • Sell claim to North America to raise cash Napoleon Power over eEurope • Napoleon crushed all enemies in europe • By 1810 Napoleon indirectly control almost all europe Invasion on russia  • Napoleon decided to invade russia with 2 million soldiers • Napoleon pursued russians toward capital russians burned everything behind them • Napoleon retreated leaving  with 10000 left End of napoleon • gave up the thrown • Was given a small pension and sent on the island of Elba Hundred days • Napoleon named emperor • Powers of europe were not going to let it happen • Waterloo War and French loss Final Exile • St. Helena- A remote island in the South Atlantic  Haitian Revolution Haiti • Became the second independent nation state in western Hemisphere • Site of largest successful slave revolt in history Saint Dominque (haiti) • The richest french colony • 40% of the worlds sugar and 60% of the coffee Grand Blances • Wealthy plantation owner • Merchants and lawyer • Held political power Petite Blances •  Poor whites • Little political power Gens de Couleur Libres • Free people of color, many of mixed race • Their political power varied according to the land they owned and the wealth they controlled • In contention with the petits blancs Slaves • Extremely harsh treatment of slaves caused high mortality and low fertility rates • Led to constant importation of slaves from Africa (40,000/year) People in Saint Domingue heard of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and revolution in France The Haiti Revolution  • The National Assembly gave full citizenship based on property and wealth instead of race • Fighting began between the petits blancs and the gens de couleur • Slaves across plantations joined together and the rebellion spread across the colony Spain and Britain attempted to weaken French presence on the island French Abolish Slavery Revolutionary armies in Haiti join with French to fight against the British and Spanish Toussaint Louverture • Organized and led slave rebellions • As governor • Constitution of 1801 • Abolished slavery • Santo Domingo remains French • Toussaint Louverture = Governor General for life Napoleon sent an Army to Reconquer St. Domingue • Massive French casualties • Haitian Independence, 1804 ◦ Jean Jacques Dessaline ▪ Lead Haitian revolutionaries to victories over French troops ▪ Dessalines declared emperor  Latin American Revolutions  Roots of the Revolution • Rigid social structure • Ideas of the Enlightenment and other revolutions Gradual weakening of the Spanish Empire Social hierarchy  • Peninsulares ◦ Colonist who were born in Spain or Portugal • Creoles ◦ Colonists born in the Americas of ethnic Spanish or Portuguese descent • Mestizo ◦ Colonists born in the Americas to ethnically European and Native American parents Spanish South America • Local Juntas (government) of Creoles declare independence from Spain • Peninsulares rally support for the Spanish crown Simón Bolívar • Creole • Liberal / Conservative, wanted to keep the social order, just with Creoles in charge • Eventually supported abolition of slavery to gain more troops • Bolivar’s army defeats loyalists in the North and moves south towards Peru José de San Martín • Peninsulare • Victorious in the South pushes North towards Peru Guayaquil Conference • Bolivar declared head of revolution, San Martin retires Final Independence and Outcome • Ideal of creating united Spanish South America • Bolivar elected president • Limited Democracies formed in new nations • Caudillos (A military or political leader) ◦ Local strongmen come to power • Slavery abolished, but issues of race remain Brazil • King Joao VI flees Portugal and sets up court in Brazil, goes home in 1821 • Prince Pedro left in charge of Brazil Independance • Brazilians noticed revolutions in Spanish colonies • Resentment of Portuguese economic power and social system • Pedro I declared emperor of independent Brazil Pedro I • Emperor  • Opposed slavery • Attempts to limit slavery result in Pedro abdicating (resigning) • Slavery continues in Brazil until 1888 • Last emperor Pedro II overthrown in 1889 Mexico • Creoles want to rebel against the king, Peninsulares loyal and brutally enforce their power • Severe food shortages and inflation • 3 phases in revolution Phase 1 • Mestizo and Native Americans see all rich white Mexicans as the problem • Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, creole ◦ Leads a ragged army ◦ Hidalgo and rebels defeated by united Peninsulares and Creoles, Hidalgo executed Phase 2 • Jose Maria Morelos takes over • Declares independence, and writes constitution • Defeated and executed by loyalists Phase 3 • Spanish King forced to give up some power • Guerrilla rebels team up with Loyalist soldiers and declare independence • Mexico becomes independent republic in 1823 Outcomes • Revolutions leaves Mexico in disarray • Central America break off • Caudillo  ◦ Antonio Santa Anna comes to power • 1848 loss off 55% of Mexico to the US in Mexican American War

Scientific Revolution- Thought about the natural world based on careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs  Nicolaus Copernicus • Made Heliocentric Theory- Star, the earth and other planets rotate around the sun Galileo Galilei • Built telescope • Proved the heliocentric theory • Faced inquisition and recanted his work Issac Newton • Made Law of Universal Gravitation •  All physical object are affected equally by the same forces • The same forces rule the motion of the planets and all matter in earth and space Rene Descartes • Wrote “discourse on method” • Made his own scientific method- scientific study should be done using deductive reasoning to test hypothesis Enlightenment- Stressed reason and thought and the power of individual to solve problems  Philosophes • The 5 concepts of their core belief were reason, nature, happiness, progress and liberty Thomas Hobbes • Convinced people were naturally selfish and wicked • Felt governments were needed to keep order  • Like the idea of the social contract Social Contract • Strong government is needed to keep citizens under control • People gave up rights to a strong leader in exchange for law and order • Hobbes felt that an absolute monarchy was the best form of government  John Locke • Believed people could learn from  experience and improvement of himself • They had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and look after the welfare of society • Believed in everyone is born with natural rights of life liberty and property • Gov is based on the consent of the governed • Believed government had the responsibility to provide these rights and people had the power to overthrow it Natural Rights- Everyone is born with basic rights that nobody (monarchy) can take Voltaire • Used satire • Targeted the clergy, upper class and government  • Fought for tolerance, freedom of religion belief and freedom of speech Montesquieu • Believed in Separation of Power because would keep any individual from gaining total control • Executive: British king and his minster • Legislative: Parliament • Judicial: The judges Rousseau • Believed civilization corrupts people's natural goodness • Wrote the “Social Contract” • Government wa an agreement among free india; to create a society and government (NOT AN AGREEMENT BETWEEN PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT) WOMEN IN ENLIGHTENMENT  • Philosophes took a traditional view on the role of women • Rousseau believed a woman’s education should be to prepare her to be a wife and mother • Other males scolded women for reading, that it could cause wickedness • Wealthy women held social gatherings called salons to spread the ideas of the enlightenment Mary Wollstonecraft • argued in favor of educating women, urged women to enter male dominated fields  ROYALS
Fredrick ll of Prussia • Granted religious tolerance • Reduced the amount of torture • Allowed freedom from the press Catherine the Great of Russia • Created national school system • Brought in all nobles and townspeople for convention on how to improve russia and modernize it FRENCH REVOLUTION The Old regime- a system of feudalism left over from the middle ages THREE ESTATES The First Estate  • Roman catholic church • Owned 10% of the land • Paid 2% f their income to government Second estate • Nobility • 2% f population • Owned 20% of the land • Paid almost no tax The Third Estate • 98% of the population Bourgeoise • Merchants,doctors and professionals • Well educated and wealthy • Believed strongly in the enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality  Workers • cooks, servants, factory workers, and etc • Paid low wages and were often out of work\ Peasants • 80% of population •  paid half of their income to the nobles,church and to the king  Start of revolution Factors leading to revolution- resentment of the first and second estate Legacy of the enlightenment • People were willing to question longstanding notions about society  Economic woes • High taxes and increase in cost of living • Bad weather leading to crop failures • Government debt Louis VI and Marie Antoinette • Lovis had been forced to call a meeting of the Estates General to get approval for tax reform  • Third estate, has little voice • Third estate created a new body to pass laws and reforms in the name of the French people • end of the absolute monarchy and beginning of representatives government. Tennis Court Oath • National Assembly was locked out of their chambers  • Broke into the indoor tennis court, signed a pledge that they would remain there until they’d written a new constitution  Storming of Bastille • in 1789 • Rumors spread that the kings was bringing Swiss Guards to paris to put down unrest • Bastille was a prison and an arsenal in Paris The Great Fear • Peasants took arms against the nobles  • People marched on versailles demanding that the royal family be brought to paris where they coil be closely observed  Revolution Terror and Empire The Jacobins • A radical political group • Called for “five or six” hundred head cut off to rid france of the enemies of the Revolution • Found Louis XVI guilty for treason and had him guillotine Maximilien Robespierre • Led the jacobins in the effort to rid france of all trace of monarchy and nobility • Gathered enough power to rule france in the style of a dictator  The Reign of Terror • Revolutionary courts sent thousands to their death for the crime of being an enemy of state  • 85% of the executed were peasants or urban poor n • Placed powerThe terror ended with execution of Robespierre himself  Napoleon Start of Napolean  • the death of Robespierre ended the terror • They were looking for stability • New  Constitution in upper middle class • Appointed napoleon to command france armies COUP D’ETAT • By 1799 the director had lost control • Napoleon quickly assumed dictatorial power as the first consul of the French Republic  New Economy and Faith • Set up a fair tax code and national band • Fired corrupt official and appointed new ones  • Created public schools Napoleanic Code • Uniform set of laws that brought stability eliminated injustices • Women lost rights • Freedom of speech restricted • Slavery was restored Church and Government • Rejected church control on national affairs and allowed govt to appoint church leaders Rebellion of Saint Dominque • Loss of his colonies napoleon gave up the idea of having a empire in the new world Louisiana Purchase • Sell claim to North America to raise cash Napoleon Power over eEurope • Napoleon crushed all enemies in europe • By 1810 Napoleon indirectly control almost all europe Invasion on russia  • Napoleon decided to invade russia with 2 million soldiers • Napoleon pursued russians toward capital russians burned everything behind them • Napoleon retreated leaving  with 10000 left End of napoleon • gave up the thrown • Was given a small pension and sent on the island of Elba Hundred days • Napoleon named emperor • Powers of europe were not going to let it happen • Waterloo War and French loss Final Exile • St. Helena- A remote island in the South Atlantic  Haitian Revolution Haiti • Became the second independent nation state in western Hemisphere • Site of largest successful slave revolt in history Saint Dominque (haiti) • The richest french colony • 40% of the worlds sugar and 60% of the coffee Grand Blances • Wealthy plantation owner • Merchants and lawyer • Held political power Petite Blances •  Poor whites • Little political power Gens de Couleur Libres • Free people of color, many of mixed race • Their political power varied according to the land they owned and the wealth they controlled • In contention with the petits blancs Slaves • Extremely harsh treatment of slaves caused high mortality and low fertility rates • Led to constant importation of slaves from Africa (40,000/year) People in Saint Domingue heard of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and revolution in France The Haiti Revolution  • The National Assembly gave full citizenship based on property and wealth instead of race • Fighting began between the petits blancs and the gens de couleur • Slaves across plantations joined together and the rebellion spread across the colony Spain and Britain attempted to weaken French presence on the island French Abolish Slavery Revolutionary armies in Haiti join with French to fight against the British and Spanish Toussaint Louverture • Organized and led slave rebellions • As governor • Constitution of 1801 • Abolished slavery • Santo Domingo remains French • Toussaint Louverture = Governor General for life Napoleon sent an Army to Reconquer St. Domingue • Massive French casualties • Haitian Independence, 1804 ◦ Jean Jacques Dessaline ▪ Lead Haitian revolutionaries to victories over French troops ▪ Dessalines declared emperor  Latin American Revolutions  Roots of the Revolution • Rigid social structure • Ideas of the Enlightenment and other revolutions Gradual weakening of the Spanish Empire Social hierarchy  • Peninsulares ◦ Colonist who were born in Spain or Portugal • Creoles ◦ Colonists born in the Americas of ethnic Spanish or Portuguese descent • Mestizo ◦ Colonists born in the Americas to ethnically European and Native American parents Spanish South America • Local Juntas (government) of Creoles declare independence from Spain • Peninsulares rally support for the Spanish crown Simón Bolívar • Creole • Liberal / Conservative, wanted to keep the social order, just with Creoles in charge • Eventually supported abolition of slavery to gain more troops • Bolivar’s army defeats loyalists in the North and moves south towards Peru José de San Martín • Peninsulare • Victorious in the South pushes North towards Peru Guayaquil Conference • Bolivar declared head of revolution, San Martin retires Final Independence and Outcome • Ideal of creating united Spanish South America • Bolivar elected president • Limited Democracies formed in new nations • Caudillos (A military or political leader) ◦ Local strongmen come to power • Slavery abolished, but issues of race remain Brazil • King Joao VI flees Portugal and sets up court in Brazil, goes home in 1821 • Prince Pedro left in charge of Brazil Independance • Brazilians noticed revolutions in Spanish colonies • Resentment of Portuguese economic power and social system • Pedro I declared emperor of independent Brazil Pedro I • Emperor  • Opposed slavery • Attempts to limit slavery result in Pedro abdicating (resigning) • Slavery continues in Brazil until 1888 • Last emperor Pedro II overthrown in 1889 Mexico • Creoles want to rebel against the king, Peninsulares loyal and brutally enforce their power • Severe food shortages and inflation • 3 phases in revolution Phase 1 • Mestizo and Native Americans see all rich white Mexicans as the problem • Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, creole ◦ Leads a ragged army ◦ Hidalgo and rebels defeated by united Peninsulares and Creoles, Hidalgo executed Phase 2 • Jose Maria Morelos takes over • Declares independence, and writes constitution • Defeated and executed by loyalists Phase 3 • Spanish King forced to give up some power • Guerrilla rebels team up with Loyalist soldiers and declare independence • Mexico becomes independent republic in 1823 Outcomes • Revolutions leaves Mexico in disarray • Central America break off • Caudillo  ◦ Antonio Santa Anna comes to power • 1848 loss off 55% of Mexico to the US in Mexican American War

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