1. Exploration & Native Americans Christopher Columbus Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. Wanted to find a western route to Asia. Reached the Caribbean instead. His voyages began sustained European contact with the Americas. Led to European colonization and the Columbian Exchange. Conquistadores Spanish explorers/conquerors who sought gold, land, and converts. Helped Spain conquer large Native American empires. Often used military force and alliances with rival Native groups. Mayas, Incas, Aztecs Major civilizations in the Americas before European conquest. Aztecs: centered in Mexico; conquered by Cortés. Incas: centered in the Andes/South America; conquered by Pizarro. Mayas: Central America; famous for cities, writing, mathematics, and astronomy. Hernando Cortés Spanish conquistador. Conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519–1521. Defeated Montezuma/Moctezuma II and captured Tenochtitlán. Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire. Operated in present-day Peru. Montezuma Aztec ruler when Cortés arrived. Also called Moctezuma II. His empire was eventually conquered by Cortés and his allies. Hernando de Soto Spanish explorer who explored the southeastern part of what became the United States. His expedition encountered Native peoples and reached the Mississippi River. Francisco de Coronado Spanish explorer who explored the American Southwest and Great Plains. Searched for the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. Jacques Cartier French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River. His voyages helped France establish claims in North America. John Cabot Italian explorer sailing for England. Explored the North Atlantic coast of North America in 1497. Helped England establish a claim to North American territory. Prince Henry the Navigator Portuguese prince who supported exploration. Helped Portugal develop navigation and sailing technology. Portuguese exploration contributed to the development of the Atlantic slave trade. ⸻ 2. Spanish, French & English Colonization Joint-stock company A company where investors pool money to fund a business. Why important: English colonies such as Virginia were partly financed through joint-stock companies. Virginia Company English joint-stock company. Founded Jamestown in 1607. Investors hoped to make money from the colony. Jamestown First permanent English settlement in North America, 1607. Located in Virginia. Suffered from disease, starvation, conflict, and poor leadership. Tobacco eventually helped make the colony profitable. Tidewater Coastal area of Virginia and surrounding colonies. Early English settlements were concentrated here. Piedmont Inland region between the Tidewater/coastal plain and Appalachian Mountains. Settlement expanded into this area as colonies grew. Coureurs de bois French “runners of the woods.” French colonists/traders who lived and traveled among Native Americans. Participated heavily in the fur trade. Samuel de Champlain French explorer. Founded Quebec in 1608. Known as the “Father of New France.” Developed alliances with Native Americans. ⸻ 3. Roanoke & Early Virginia Sir Walter Raleigh English supporter of colonization. Sponsored the attempted settlement at Roanoke. Roanoke English colony established in the 1580s. Eventually disappeared. Called the “Lost Colony.” John Smith Leader at Jamestown. Helped organize the settlement and enforce discipline. Famous for his relationship with Pocahontas, although later accounts are disputed. “Starving Time” Winter of 1609–1610 at Jamestown. Colonists experienced extreme hunger, disease, and death. Demonstrated how difficult early colonization was. John Rolfe Helped make Virginia economically successful by growing tobacco. Married Pocahontas. Tobacco became Virginia’s major cash crop. Headright system Colonists received land for bringing people to Virginia. Encouraged immigration. Helped create large plantations and contributed to social/economic inequality. Freeman A colonist who possessed certain political rights, including the ability to participate in government. Political rights were generally limited to certain white male colonists. House of Burgesses Created in Virginia in 1619. First representative legislative assembly in the English colonies. Important development in colonial self-government. 1618 reforms of the Virginia Company The Virginia Company changed its policies to attract settlers and make Virginia successful. Included: More representative government. Greater incentives for settlers. Expansion of land ownership. Greater economic opportunity. Result: Virginia became more attractive to settlers. ⸻ 4. Puritans & Religion John Calvin Protestant religious thinker. Developed Calvinism. Believed in predestination. Predestination The belief that God has already determined who will be saved. Puritanism Protestant movement that wanted to reform the Church of England. Puritans believed the English church still contained too many Catholic practices. Separatists Puritans who believed the Church of England could not be reformed. Wanted to separate completely from it. The Pilgrims were Separatists. Non-Separatist Puritans Wanted to reform the Church of England rather than leave it completely. Many settled Massachusetts Bay. Pilgrims Separatist Puritans. Settled at Plymouth in 1620. Signed the Mayflower Compact. Mayflower Compact Agreement signed by Plymouth settlers. Established self-government based on majority rule. Important early example of colonial self-government. Plymouth Colony founded by Pilgrims in 1620. Later became part of Massachusetts. William Bradford Pilgrim leader and governor of Plymouth. Helped maintain the colony. Wrote about Plymouth’s early history. Massachusetts Bay Colony Founded by Puritans in 1630. Much larger than Plymouth. Centered around Boston. Governed according to Puritan religious beliefs. John Winthrop Governor of Massachusetts Bay. Described Massachusetts as a “city upon a hill.” “City upon a hill” Winthrop’s idea that Massachusetts should serve as an example of a successful Christian society to the world. Covenant A religious agreement between God and a community. Puritans believed their communities had a special covenant with God. “Visible saints” Puritans who demonstrated that they had received God’s grace and were considered members of the church. “Invisible saints” Those believed to have God’s grace/salvation, even though humans could not truly know who was saved. “Saving grace” The belief that God’s grace could lead a person to salvation. ⸻ 5. New England Religious Conflicts Anne Hutchinson Puritan woman who challenged Massachusetts religious leaders. Believed faith/grace was more important than following religious rules. Put on trial and banished from Massachusetts. Shows the limits of religious tolerance in Massachusetts. Roger Williams Founded Rhode Island. Believed in: Religious freedom Separation of church and government Fairer treatment of Native Americans Banished from Massachusetts. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 1639. Established a representative government in Connecticut. Often considered one of the first written constitutions in America. King Philip’s War 1675–1676. Major conflict between New England colonists and Native Americans led by Metacom, whom colonists called King Philip. Resulted in enormous destruction and loss of Native American land and power. Toleration Act of 1649 Maryland law granting religious toleration to Christians. Intended especially to protect Catholics. Important early example of religious toleration, although it was limited. ⸻ 6. Massachusetts Education Massachusetts Education Act of 1647 Required towns to establish schools when they reached certain population sizes. Why? Puritans wanted people to be able to read the Bible. Important: Shows how strongly education and religion were connected in Puritan society. ⸻ 7. Colonial Regions New England Colonies Examples: Massachusetts Plymouth Connecticut Rhode Island New Hampshire Important characteristics Religious motivations Puritan influence Small farms Town-centered communities Fishing Shipbuilding Lumber Commerce Less suitable climate for large cash-crop plantations ⸻ Middle Colonies Examples: New York Pennsylvania New Jersey Delaware Important characteristics Religious diversity More ethnic diversity Fertile farmland Grain production Large ports Trade Cities such as New York and Philadelphia ⸻ Southern Colonies Examples: Virginia Maryland North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Important characteristics Plantation agriculture Tobacco, rice, indigo Slavery Large landowners Warm climate Greater social/economic inequality ⸻ 8. Types of Colonies Corporate colony Colony controlled by a company. Example: Virginia originally operated under the Virginia Company. Royal colony Controlled directly by the English king. Governor appointed by the king. Proprietary colony Granted by the king to an individual or group. Proprietor had significant control. Example: Pennsylvania → William Penn Charter of Liberties Early New York document providing certain rights and outlining representative government. Associated with efforts to establish political participation in the colony. ⸻ 9. William Penn & Quakers William Penn Quaker. Founded Pennsylvania. Wanted a colony based on religious tolerance. Had relatively peaceful relationships with Native Americans. Quakers / Society of Friends Protestant religious group. Believed in spiritual equality. Rejected many traditional church structures. Supported religious tolerance. Women had greater religious participation than in many other colonial communities. George Calvert Also known as Lord Baltimore. Catholic Englishman. Received land that became Maryland. Wanted a place where Catholics could practice their religion more freely. ⸻ 10. Georgia James Oglethorpe Founded Georgia in 1732. Intended Georgia partly as a buffer against Spanish Florida. Also wanted to create opportunities for poor English people. ⸻ 11. Pennsylvania & New York Patroonship Dutch system in New Netherland. Large land grants were given to wealthy individuals called patroons. Encouraged large estates. Quitrent A fee/rent paid to a proprietor for use of land. Common in proprietary colonies. ⸻ 12. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion 1676 Virginia. Nathaniel Bacon led settlers against Native Americans and Virginia’s government. Bacon’s followers believed Governor Berkeley was not protecting frontier settlers. Why important? Exposed class tensions between wealthy planters and poorer colonists. Afterward, Virginia increasingly relied on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. ⸻ 13. Colonial Social Classes Indentured servants Europeans who agreed to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to America. After their contract ended, they could become free. Freedom dues Things given to indentured servants when their contract ended. Could include: Clothing Tools Land or supplies Redemptioners European immigrants who agreed to work for a period of time after arriving in America to pay off transportation costs. ⸻ 14. Slavery Chattel slavery System in which enslaved people were treated legally as property. Slavery became hereditary. Enslaved people had extremely limited/no legal freedom. Middle Passage Forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. Part of the triangular trade. Conditions were extremely overcrowded and deadly. Slave codes Laws restricting the rights and freedoms of enslaved people. They often: Prevented movement. Restricted education. Restricted assembly. Defined enslaved people as property. Made slavery hereditary. ⸻ 15. Stono Rebellion Stono Rebellion 1739, South Carolina. Enslaved Africans rebelled and attempted to escape toward Spanish Florida. Colonial authorities eventually suppressed the rebellion. Why important? Led to even stricter slave laws. ⸻ 16. Triangular Trade A trading system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Simplified: Europe → Africa Manufactured goods Africa → Americas Enslaved Africans Americas → Europe Sugar Tobacco Rice Other raw materials ⸻ 17. Mercantilism Economic theory used by European empires. Basic idea: Colonies exist to benefit the mother country. England wanted colonies to: Supply raw materials. Buy English manufactured goods. Increase England’s wealth. Strengthen England’s economy. ⸻ 18. Navigation Acts English laws regulating colonial trade. They required much colonial trade to: Use English ships. Pass through English-controlled channels. Benefit England. Goal: strengthen mercantilism. ⸻ 19. Molasses Act 1733 Taxed foreign molasses imported into British colonies. Designed to protect British sugar producers in the Caribbean. Colonists often avoided or resisted the tax through smuggling. Woolens Act Restricted colonial production/trade of woolen goods. Intended to protect English manufacturers. Hat Act Restricted colonial production/export of hats. Another example of Britain controlling colonial manufacturing. Iron Act Encouraged production of certain raw iron products in the colonies but restricted production of finished iron goods. Britain wanted colonies to supply raw materials while buying manufactured products from Britain. BIG IDEA: These laws show mercantilism and British attempts to control colonial economies. ⸻ 20. Dominion of New England Dominion of New England Created by King James II in 1686. Combined several New England colonies under one government. Why? Increase royal control. Enforce Navigation Acts. Reduce colonial self-government. Sir Edmund Andros Royal governor of the Dominion of New England. Strongly enforced royal policies. Very unpopular with many colonists. ⸻ 21. Glorious Revolution Glorious Revolution — 1688 English people and Parliament removed James II. William and Mary became monarchs. Increased the power of Parliament. Colonial effect: Colonists overthrew the Dominion of New England government. Sir Edmund Andros was removed. Colonists regained some self-government. ⸻ 22. Political Deference Political deference The belief that ordinary people should respect and defer to wealthy, powerful, or socially prominent leaders. Colonial society was often hierarchical. ⸻ 23. Lower House of the Legislature The elected part of a colonial legislature representing ordinary property-owning colonists. Examples: House of Burgesses Colonial assemblies Important: These assemblies helped establish the tradition of representative government. ⸻ 24. The Great Awakening Great Awakening Religious revival movement in the 1730s–1740s. Preachers emphasized: Personal faith Emotional religious experiences Salvation Individual relationships with God It challenged established churches and religious authorities. Jonathan Edwards Famous Great Awakening preacher. Known for the sermon: “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” Emphasized God’s power and the need for conversion. George Whitefield Extremely popular traveling preacher. Preached throughout the colonies. Helped spread the Great Awakening. Old Lights People who supported traditional, established religious practices. New Lights People who supported the emotional revival-style religion of the Great Awakening. Baptists Protestant group that grew during the Great Awakening. Emphasized personal faith and baptism. Helped increase religious diversity. ⸻ 25. John Peter Zenger John Peter Zenger New York printer/journalist. Put on trial for criticizing the colonial governor. His lawyer argued that truthful statements should not be considered libel. Why important? His trial became an important symbol associated with freedom of the press. ⸻ 26. Maryland & Carolina Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina Document associated with governing Carolina. Created a hierarchical political/social structure. Helped establish an aristocratic plantation society. Slavery became increasingly important in Carolina. Established churches A government-supported official church. In some colonies, taxes helped support the established church. Important contrast: Established churches = government + religion connected. Rhode Island/Pennsylvania = greater religious freedom. ⸻ 27. Great Migration Great Migration, 1630–1643 Large migration of English Puritans to Massachusetts Bay and other New England colonies. Why? Religious motivations Political/religious conflict in England Desire to build Puritan communities Important: This was different from the much later Great Migration of African Americans during the 20th century. ⸻ 28. Enclosure Movement Enclosure Movement In England, landowners enclosed common lands and combined small fields into larger private farms. Effect: Some small farmers lost access to land. Increased movement of people toward cities and overseas colonies. Helped contribute to English migration to America. ⸻ 29. “City Upon a Hill” vs. Religious Tolerance Know this contrast for APUSH: Massachusetts Bay → Puritan religious society → Limited religious tolerance Rhode Island → Roger Williams → Religious freedom Pennsylvania → William Penn → Quakerism + religious tolerance Maryland → Catholic refuge → Toleration Act of 1649 ⸻ ⭐ The MOST IMPORTANT Connections to Know These are the connections your teacher is likely looking for in APUSH questions. Tobacco → Virginia John Rolfe → tobacco → profitable Virginia → plantations → labor demand → indentured servants → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → slavery Bacon’s Rebellion → class conflict → elites become more suspicious of poor white workers → increased reliance on African slavery Puritans → Massachusetts Puritans → Great Migration → Massachusetts Bay → John Winthrop → “city upon a hill” Separatists → Plymouth Separatists → Pilgrims → Mayflower → Plymouth → Mayflower Compact Religious disagreement → Rhode Island Anne Hutchinson/Roger Williams → conflict with Massachusetts → Rhode Island → religious freedom Quakers → Pennsylvania William Penn → Quakers → Pennsylvania → religious tolerance Mercantilism → Navigation Acts Mercantilism → Britain wants colonies to benefit England → Navigation Acts → trade restrictions Great Awakening → religious change Great Awakening → emotional religion → New Lights → challenges established churches → increased religious diversity Slavery → plantation economy Cash crops → labor demand → African slavery → slave codes → racial hierarchy

WEEK 42: Salvation only for Israel

CWT Boiler Pressure & Sulfite Tiers

Religions of salvation in classical persiqan society

Luke Timothy Johnson — “For Our Salvation”

La Première Guerre mondiale et le quotidien des soldats

Inorganic: Nitrogen & Sulfur

1.7 - Salvation and Grace

Prov 21/9 1. Källkritik S. 26 2. Nordens forntid (komp) 3. Nordisk medeltid s. 110–117 Källkritik: att vara källkritisk betyder att man ska vara neutral. För att veta om en källa är bra eller inte måste man ha koll på fyra saker: Äktheten, tid, beroende och tendens • Äktheten: om en källa är trovärdig eller inte • Tid: Källan måste vara aktuell i tid. Annars är källan osäker. • Beroende: bygger källan på en annan källa? Har den påverkats på ett annat sätt? • Tendens: Försöker källan påverka oss? Risk att källan är vinklad. Visa bara det man vill visa, t.ex. Genom propaganda. Hur kan vi veta om källan är bra eller inte 1. Brev 2. Interjuver 3. Dokument 4. Arkeologisk fynd Kvarlevor och berättande källor. Berättande källa: t.ex. Tidningsartikel, bok Kvarleva: Man kan lita mer på den än på en berättande källa. Det är spår eller lämningar av vad som hänt. T. ex. Bevarade vapen. Narrativ smitta: innebär att personers minnen och berättelser om en händelse omedvetet förändras när de pratar med andra som var med om samma sak Perioder/epoker Mekanisk periodisering ex. 1700-talet, 1800-talet osv Teoretisk periodisering Delar historien efter saker som är utmärkande för perioden. ex. 1900 talet 1914–1918 var första världskriget 1919–1938 var mellankrigstiden 1939–1945 var andra världskriget Epokindelning Dela vad som har hänt i historien i epoker till exempel Medeltiden. Ibland kan flera länder eller kontinenter ha samma indelning och ibland olika. Ex. Vi i Sverige/Norden kallar perioden ca 800–1100 för vikingatid. Men södra Europa hade ingen vikingatid. Nordisk forntid Äldre stenålder (jägarstenålder/paleolitikum) ca 12 000 f.Kr. - ca 4000 f.kr  För ca 15 000 år sedan började inlandsisen i Norden att smälta.  De äldsta spåren av människor i Norden är ca 14 000 år gamla. Livet under stenåldern • Levde som samlare och jägare och folket var nomader (att människor rörde sig hela tiden och hade ingen fast bostad). • Lever oftast i små grupper och är inte bofasta • Troligtvis relativt jämlikt mellan män och kvinnor och det fanns inga sociala skillnader • Vet ganska lite om hur människor levde under den här tiden • Vet inte vilken sorts religion man hade. Yngre stenålder (bonde-stenålder/neolitikum) ca 4 000 f.Kr. – 1 700 f.kr.  För 6000 år sedan började man bruka jorden och ha tamdjur. Jordbruks konsekvenser.  Mer mat  Ökad befolkning  Bofasta  Ökad spridning av sjukdomar  Samhället blev mindre jämlikt (början av klassamhälle)  Våld mellan människor ökar (mer vapen utvecklats, makt ta över område och skellet/spår av döda människor) Dösar och gånggrifter (megalitgravar)  I början av yngre stenålder uppstod sedan att grava de döda i stora stengravar, megalitgravar  Först i dosar och sen i gånggrifter s Bronsåldern 1700 f.Kr - 500 f.Kr Från 1700 f.Kr. Började nordborna att kunna framställa brons? Brons användes främst till vapen och smycken. Brons består av tenn och koppar Det var främst hövdingar och krigare som hade tillgång till brons. Det var en status- och maktmarkör. De första små hövdingarikena är i Norden. Människor började använda oxar och hästar som dragdjur. Boskap började hållas inte bara för köttet, utan för t.ex. Mjölk och ull. Under bronsåldern utvecklades jordbruket ytterligare i Norden. På en del ställen började man hålla djuren i speciella fähus. Bronsåldern i Sverige är speciellt känd för sina hällristningar. Järnåldern 500 f.Kr- 750 e.Kr Ca 500 f.Kr. Lärde sig skandinaverna att framställa föremål av järn. Den får en mycket större betydelse än brons eftersom Sverige är rikt på järnmalm. Man började göra många olika redskap av metall och inte bara smycken och vapen. Under den tiden får vi vårt första skriftspråk: runalfabetet ca 200 e.Kr Vid slutet av järnåldern anlades flera s.k. fornborgar. Främst i Mälardalen, på Öland och på Gotland. Arkeologer och historiker tolkade det som att tiden blev oroligare, med ökade konflikter. Under 500-talet uppfördes stora begravningshögar vid Gamla Uppsala, där mäktiga kungar och hövdingar begravdes. Det vittnar om den Gamla Uppsala som ett politiskt och religiöst centrum och om Upplands växande makt. Nordisk medeltid och vikingatid. Svensk epokindelning  Järnålder ca 500 f.Kr- 750 e.Kr  Vikingatid ca 750–1100 Medeltiden ca 1100–1523 6 juni blev Gustav Vasa kung  Äldre medeltid-1100-1250  Högmedeltid 1250–1350  Senmedeltid 1350–1523 Europeisk epokindelning  Antiken 700 f. Kr. 500 e. Kr Medeltiden 500-1500  Äldre medeltid 500–1000  Högmedeltid 1000–1300  Senmedeltid 1300–1500 Vikingatid ca 750–1100  Vid mitten av 700-talet bestod Skandinavien av flera små kungar och hövdingadömen.  Det som förenade vikingarna i Skandinavien var att man hade gemensam: kultur, språk (fornnordiska) och religion (asatron) Asatron Under den äldre järnåldern blev nordborna asatroende. Asatron liknar den grekiska och romerska religionen under antiken. Vikingarnas språk Fornnordiska delas in i västnordiska och östnordiska. Skillnaden i dialekt Västnordiska (språk) isländska och norska Östnordiska (språk) Danska och svenska. I Norden började man använda runskrift på 200-talet e.Kr. Flest runstenar finns i Sverige; ca 2500 De flesta är resta i slutet av vikingatiden. Under 900- och 1000-talet. Vikingar tågen  Handelsfärder: syftet är att köpa, sälja eller byta varor.  Plundringståg; att stjäla resurser, skatter och värdeföremål från ett annat område eller folk, ofta genom våld och förstörelse  Invasioner; att man försöker ta över ett område  Kolonisering att ta över ett område (land) Ofta så sammanföll de olika orsakerna Vikingarna var en viktig länk i handeln mellan Asien och Europa Varför blev vikingatågen så framgångsrika? Skeppsbyggnads- och sjöfartskunskap Politisk svaghet nere i Europa Varför upphörde vikingatågen successivt under 1000-talet? Länderna på kontinenten blev starkare Kristendomens införande i Norden. (vikingatåg blir korståg) ett försök att sprida kristendomen med våld Kristnandet av Norden. Under slutet av vikingatiden blir Norden kristet. Danmark kan räknas som ett kristet rike från mitten av 900-talet och Norge från början av 1000-talet. Här gick också kristnande och riksbyggande hand i hand. Sverige De första kristna församlingarna finns redan på 800-talet, men de är små och kortvariga. Stor kristen mission i Sverige på 1000-talet. Sverige räknas som kristet från slutet av tusentalet/början av 1100-talet. Kristendomen och asatron levde länge parallellt i Sverige. Övrigt från vikingatid År 793 anföll och plundrade vikingar klostret på ön Lindisfarne i England. Detta räknas som början på vikingatiden. Ibn Fadlan är en författare som beskriver vikingarna som långa, starka och välbyggda. Han skrev också att de hade många smycken och tatueringar, men att deras hygien var dålig. Vikingarna lockades av handel, rikedomar, plundring, mark och äventyr. Deras framgångar grundade sig på deras snabba och sjövärdiga långskepp samt deras skicklighet som sjöfarare. De vanligaste varorna vikingarna hade var pälsar, skinn, järn, vapen, bärnsren och ibland slavar. A. Gånge – Rolf är en vikingahövding som grundade Normandie i norra Frankrike. B. Knut den store var kung över Danmark, England och Norge på 1000-talet. C. Vilhelm Erövraren var hertig av Normandie som erövrade England år 1066. Svensk medeltid 1100–1523 Romarriket har fallit (det var början av medeltiden). Kyrkan styr allt under denna tid. Justinadan pesten. Kyrkan var den enda starka organisationen. I feodalsamhället delades makten genom att den delades ut till olika riken. Detta skapade ett klassamhälle (kung, adel, präster och bönder). Sverige gick in i medeltiden när det omvandlades till kristendom. Islam expanderade och blev granne med de kristna. Den skapade en konflikt mellan dem. Första korståget från Europa till Jerusalem. Korståget pågår för att ta tillbaka det som var kristet. 1200-talets faller Jerusalem. Under högmedeltiden blev det ett utskott i mat och andra började flytta ut till andra städer. Digerdöden: under den tiden drabbades andra av pest och sjukdomar. Efter den tiden började kungen införa ett skattesystem. Äldre medeltid 1100–1250 Sverige är nu ett kristet kungadöme Men under 1100-talet pågår en ständig maktkamp mellan olika ätter (släkten) Sverige fungerar mer som en lös federation av självständiga landskap än som ett rike. Varje landskap har sina egna lagar. Kungens makt var svag. Övrigt om tidig medeltid i Sverige/kungamakt och kristendom Under medeltiden bestod Sverige av flera landskap med egna lagar. Kungmakten var svag men blev gradvis starkare. Kristendomen spreds och kyrkan fick stor betydelse.  Ansgar var en kristen missionär från Frankrike som försökte sprida kristendomen i Sverige på 800-talet. Ett bevis på kristendomen i Sverige är under 800-talet. En typ av belägg på kristendomen är skriftliga källor, bland annat berättelser om Ansgars resor och arkeologiska fynd som kristna gravar och kors. Olof Skötkonung är Sveriges första kristna kung och den första svenska kung som lät prägla mynt. Kungen och kyrkan samarbetade genom att kyrkan stödde kungen och hjälpte till att sprida kristendomen. Högmedeltid 1250–1350 Under den tiden betalade bönderna skatt och rika och riddare betalade ingen skatt. Det var extremt svårt att byta från fattig till rik (byta klass). Sverige tog över Finland med våld. Klass samhälle delades i Birger Jarl 1250–1275 Magnus Ladulås 1275–1290 Vid mitten av 1200-talet stärktes den svenska centralmakten. De första gemensamma lagarna införs Man inför central beskattning – skatt till kungen 1280 blir de svenska stormännen skattebefriade mot att de ställer upp med krigare när kungen behöver det (Alsnö stadgar (riddare/krigare)) Kyrkan var skattebefriad sen tidigare Det svenska ståndssamhället uppstår (det som hade skett tidigare på kontinenten) Finland blir successivt en del av Sverige under 1200-talet genom en rad korståg. Senmedeltiden 1350-1523 Digerdöden 1350–1355 (började i Europa) var en pest som kom till Sverige. Pesten kom från Italien till Sverige (4 år). Ca 25% av Sveriges befolkning dog. Det tog 100 år för befolkningen att återhämta sig. Innan digerdöden hade Sverige en befolkning på ca 1-1,2 miljoner Efter digerdöden ca 700 000–900 000 Man skiljer på judarna och att det var Guds straff TRONSTRIDER OCH SLÄKTFEJDER (MOT ETT STARKARE RIKE).  Birger Jarl var Sveriges mäktigaste man på 1200-talet. Han brukar kallas Stockholms grundare och stärkte kungamakten.  Magnus Ladulås var kung av Sverige 1275–1290. Han skyddade bönderna från att tvingas ge mat och husrum åt kungens män, därav namnet ”Ladulås”. Men han är mest känd för att ha skyddat bönderna från att kungens och adelns män kom och krävde gratis mat och husrum. Därför fick han smeknamnet "Ladulås" (som om han låste ladan så att ingen kunde ta böndernas mat). Sverige uppstod på 1200-taletdu. Stormän som ställde upp med ryttare och soldater åt kungen undvek skatt och blev adel. Frälsebonde: bonde som brukade adelsägd jord Krykobonde: bonde som brukade jord som ägdes av kyrkan. Kronobonde: bonde som brukade mark som ägdes av staten/kungen. Skattebonde: bonde som ägde sin egen jord och betalade skatt. Heliga Birgitta: en svensk adelskvinna, religiös ledare och helgon som grundade Birgittinorden på 1300-talet. Nyköpings gästabud: år 1317 bjöd kung Birger sina bröder Erik och Valdemar på fest i Nyköping. Efter festen fängslades de och svalt ihjäl. Kalmarunionen 1397–1521 • 1397 – Förenas Sverige, Norge och Danmark i en union under drottning Margareta. • Bakgrund till unionen. 1. Hotet från tyska Hansan (Hansan är ett handelsbolag som håller på att ta över handeln på östkusten med sin armé och motivet är pengar). Konkurrera Norden. Hansan var ett förbund av handelsstäder runt Östersjön och Nordsjön som kontrollerade mycket av handeln i norra Europa. 2. Maktstrider i Sverige- Adel missnöjd med den svenska kungen (Albrekt av Mecklenburg) 3. Släktskap mellan kungahusen i Norden Orsaken till Kalmarunionen var att de nordiska länderna ville samarbeta mot yttre fiender, särskilt tyska furstar och Hansan. Tillsammans blev de starkare politiskt och ekonomiskt. Margareta – Dotter till Danmarks kung Hon gifte sig med Norges kung – son till Sveriges ”gamla kung” – (Håkan Magnusson) Margareta blev först drottning i Danmark när hennes far dog. Sen dör hennes man; då blir hon även regerande drottning i Norge. Gör sen anspråk på tronen i Sverige. Från enighet till splittring inom unionen Till en början fungerade unionen bra Men en bit in på 1400-talet ökade splittringen och missnöjet, särskilt i Sverige (t.ex. Engelbrektupproret 1434–1436). Komplicerat maktspel Unionskungens – svenska riksföreståndaren (maktkamp) Adelsfaktioner – adelsfaktioner Maktkamp om vem som ska bli riksföreståndare. Vissa adelsmän och bönder vill att Sverige ska bli ett självständigt rike igen. Vissa vill bevara unionen – men unionskungens makt ska vara svag. Alla strider och maktkamper slutar med att unionen upplöses 1521 och Sverige blir åter ett självständigt rike under Gustav Vasa. Riksföreståndare 1521–1523 och kung 1523–1560. Norden kommer att från 1523 till början av 1800-talet bestå av två riken Danmark där Norge och Island ingår (Norden) Sverige där Finland ingår.

Les soldats dans la guerre - Vokabular

13 - Nitric Acid and Sulfuric Acid Salts

history of salvation init 0

history of salvation unit0

Ethers & Epoxides ; Thiols & Sulfides

Hist 1301: WEEK 4 Seeking God's Salvation: Greater New England - TERMS & DEFINITONS

8-26-26 The Solar System By studying the geology, climatology (weather) and hydrology (water) of the other planets and moons and comparing them to those that we see on Earth, scientists can gain a better understanding of how these systems work in general, not just here. What we look for Geology: Volcanos, faults, earthquakes, mountains, and Plate tectonics Climatology: Clouds, weather, seasons, climate changes   Hydrology: Oceans, lakes, rivers, and groundwork   Terrestrial Planets There are 4  which are Mercury, Venus, earth, and Mars. They all are largely composed of rocks and metals and they have layered interiors  Mercury - Closest to the Sun GEOLOGY: Mercury is almost entirely dead but once had active volcanoes. It is the smallest planet and lost most of its internal heat long ago. Today, it is covered with craters. WATER: It has no liquid surface water. ATMOSPHERE: It has an extremely thin and insignificant atmosphere. Venus (2nd Planet) GEOLOGY: Venus has many active volcanoes (confirmed in 2023) and is probably seismically active. It may have some form of plate tectonics. WATER: None ATMOSPHERE: A uniformly hot (867 °F), dense atmosphere composed of 96% carbon dioxide and highly corrosive sulfuric acid rain. The Moon GEOLOGY: The Moon was volcanically active in the distant past but is almost completely dead now. Only minor releases of gas and some small "lunarquakes" still occur. WATER: No liquid surface water, but ice exists in some polar craters. ATMOSPHERE: No significant atmosphere. If it were not orbiting around Earth itself is would be considered at Planet  Mars (4th Planet) GEOLOGY: Mars is almost completely dead, but some volcanic activity may still be possible. Mars has the solar system's largest volcanoes, somewhat similar in type to those in Hawaii. NASA's InSight lander detected marsquakes. Scientists used them to examine the planet's interior structure. WATER: Mars has no liquid surface water today but had rivers and a shallow ocean in the past. Vast amounts of subsurface water still exist. Mars also has polar ice caps. ATMOSPHERE: It has a very thin atmosphere dominated by carbon dioxide. Seasonal planet-wide dust storms are common. Gas Giant Planets There are 2 gas giant planets in our solar system: Jupiter and Saturn. They are largely composed of the gases hydrogen and helium, with small rocky interiors. Gas giants do not have geology or oceans in the way we know them on Earth. 8-28-26 Jupiter - the Largest Planet ATMOSPHERE: Jupiter has high velocity winds and massive rotating weather systems, such as the Great Red Spot. Which are in the southern hemisphere, and storms in the northern hemisphere.  Although they appear similar to hurricanes (Low pressure systems), many of Jupiter's "storms" are anticyclones (high pressure). Jupiter's Moons The only geological features to be found in the region are on a few of Jupiter's moons: Io -The most volcanically active object in the solar system, with several active lava flows and lava lakes photographed and multiple eruptions recorded. Europa - Has a liquid ocean beneath a thick layer of ice. It also has some kind of geologic activity, similar to ice-based plate tectonics. Both the European Space Agency and NASA are sending missions to examine the moon in detail. Saturn - the Ringed Planet ATMOSPHERE: Generally similar to Jupiter MOONS: Titan - the only moon with a significant atmosphere (mostly nitrogen) and weather. It has clouds and rainfall based on methane (natural gas). Methane rivers flow across its surface, and methane lakes are found in polar regions. Enceladus - like Jupiter's moon Europa, it is believed to have an ice-covered ocean. A type of water-based volcanism (geysers) is active. Water has been seen erupting out of long fractures with enough energy to be ejected into space. Ice Giant Planets There are 2 ice giant planets in our solar system: Uranus and Neptune. Similar to gas giants, they have large amounts of hydrogen and helium in their atmospheres but have large mantles of ices above their small rocky cores. They are both relatively large and lack geology or oceans Uranus ATMOSPHERE: Similar to the gas giant planets, it has very high winds. MOONS: Miranda - a geologically complex satellite with one of the highest cliffs (over 3 miles) in the solar system. Neptune ATMOSPHERE: Similar to Uranus, but warmer even though it is farther from the Sun. MOONS: Triton - despite being extremely cold, it has active nitrogen geysers. Pluto - A Dwarf Planet Pluto has an atmosphere containing nitrogen, methane, ammonia, etc. It may freeze to the surface when it is far from the Sun. NASA's New Horizons mission examined the planet, finding active nitrogen glaciers and evidence of other recent geologic activity. 8-31-26 The Sun and the Earth  The Sun is very significant to life on Earth and the processes that affect it. It is the major source of Earth's surface heat, and its gravity has a significant influence on tides. However, the relationship between our planet and the Sun changes over time, so the Sun's energy output. The Suns Influence  Most weather systems and storms on Earth require heat energy to function. The majority of that comes from the Sun. Areas with more direct sunlight usually have more significant weather events - hurricanes in the tropics, tornadoes in mid-latitudes. Water heated by the sun plays a major role in regional weather and global climate  Heat, Weather and Climate Solar radiation plays the dominant role in Earth's weather and climate. Geologic heat (volcanic eruptions, plate tectonics) and heat from human activities often plays a more limited, but still significant, role. Any changes in the relationship of the Earth and Sun will influence weather and climate. This could be on a daily, yearly or even longer cycle. The Sun's Influence The Earth is closer to the Sun in January than it is in July (by about 3 million miles). So why is winter cold? The change in distance is not a major factor on a yearly basis. However, it does play a role over longer time periods when the situation is reversed (we are then closer in July). Long term climate can be significantly affected. Seasonal Influence The tilt of the Earth's axis is the primary cause of our seasons  Winter is cold because the Earth is tilted away from the sun, receiving less heat energy and days are shorter. Summer is warmer because the Earth is tilted towards the sun and days are longer. Regions near the equator have no significant seasons  The Sun and the Earth Longer term variations have also been linked to the Sun. One example is The Little Ice Age (~15th to 19th centuries). This occurred during a period of lower-than-normal solar activity. It's a bit more complex than that, however. Volcanic activity almost certainly played a large part in this climatic event as well, possibly acting as a trigger to start it. Changing Earth/Sun Relationships To make things even more complicated, Earth's orbit around the Sun and the tilt of Earth's axis change over time. This is widely believed to have a major influence on long-term global climate. Fortunately, these occur over very long periods of time and are of no significant concern In the near future 9-2-26 Near Earth Objects Asteroids and Comets that can closely Approach the Earth  On Oct. 15th, asteroid 2022 UP6 may pass Earth at a difference of less than 105,000 miles, closer than the Moon( (239,000) Impacts It was once thought that impact events were not significant on Earth, either now or in the past. That changed in the late 20th century. A large impact has recently been linked to massive global climate change that may have ended Earth's first ice age. Another impact may have triggered an ice age and a mass extinction event. Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) NEOs are asteroids or comets with orbits that either cross or closely approach the Earth. Most are small asteroids. There may be thousands of them in our solar system with diameters of 1 kilometer or more. A collision with an object that size would cause severe changes to our planet's climates. Significant impacts occur, on average, about once a century. Smaller ones have caused property damage and occasional injuries every few years. Scientists have discovered over 42,000 NEOs so far, but most are very small. Only a few are considered (extremely slight) impact risks. The Chelyabinsk Meteor On February 15, 2013, a meteorite over 60 feet in diameter and over 10,000 tons exploded over the Ural Mountains in Russia. The impact shock wave injured over 1500 people. NEOs: Asteroids (NEAS) Since most are small, it has been difficult to detect most of them until very recently. They can be composed of rock, metals or both. We now know that many asteroids are not very solid. They resemble large gravel piles held weakly together by gravity. Others are more metallic, made of iron and nickel. NEOs: Comets (NECs) They often travel at higher velocities than asteroids as they approach Earth's orbit. Comets are very similar to most asteroids except they contain much more ice. Although far fewer in number, they are easier to detect than asteroids because of their brightness as the ice vaporizes due to solar heating. NEC Impact A collision with a comet would not be much different than one involving most asteroids. Collisions are mainly about mass and velocity. A large comet could be more deadly than a large asteroid, if it hit with a higher velocity. NEOs: Impacts In late 2021, NASA launched the DART (Double Asteroid Redirection Test) mission to the asteroid Didymos to impact with its small moon Dimorphos in late September 2022. It was overwhelmingly successful - the impact changed the orbit of Dimorphos, demonstrating that NEOs can be redirected into safer orbits. Throughout the solar system, we can see examples of collisions between planets (and their moons) and asteroids/comets. The Moon is heavily cratered due to ancient impact events. So are most of the moons of every planet we have photographed. Mars and Mercury have many large craters. 9-4-26  Craters on Earth Once thought to be rare, scientists have now discovered over 194 confirmed impact craters on Earth. The vast majority don't look like the Moon's craters, however. Erosion and other surface processes on Earth have buried or deformed most of our craters. Barringer Crater in Arizona formed from an object about 150 feet in diameter. An Ancient Impact in Ohio In southern Ohio, the remains of an ancient impact crater are located beneath Serpent Mound. The heavily eroded crater is about 5 miles in diameter. 20th Century Impact In 1908, a comet exploded as it disintegrated over Tunguska, Siberia. Forests were destroyed over an area of 810 square miles, but no crater was left behind. This type of "impact" may be fairly common. It is estimated that if the impact would have occurred a few hours later, Moscow might have been destroyed. Importance of Plate Tectonics The process of plate tectonics reshapes the Earth's surface over time and is the key to our understanding of:  Earthquakes, tsunami, volcanoes Formation of major mountain ranges Formation and evolution of ocean basins Plate Tectonics and Earth's Interior Structure Unlike the earlier theory of continental drift, which only dealt with moving pieces of continental crust, plate tectonics involves the oceans as well. It also includes layers deeper in the Earth's interior- the lithosphere and the mantle. Earth's Structure CRUST: Oceanic Crust - relatively thin, composed of basalt (a volcanic rock) Continental Crust- thicker, made of granite. Basalt is denser than granite - this is very important in plate tectonic activity. Deeper Earth Structure MANTLE: The mantle is separated from the crust by a boundary layer. The rocks in this layer are solid, but due to high temperatures and pressures, they flow very slowly. The Earth's Core OUTER CORE: The outer core is molten (liquid) and largely made of iron and nickel. The Earth's magnetic field originates here. INNER CORE: The inner core is solid due to very high pressures. It is also mostly made of iron and nickel. The Earth's Interior: Other Layers The Lithosphere: The crust and uppermost part of the mantle Rocks in this layer are solid and brittle It is broken into pieces called plates The Asthenosphere: Part of the mantle below the lithosphere Rocks here are solid, but can flow slowly Plate Tectonics - The Basics Most of the large plates are named after the continents that they contain. The majority of the Pacific Ocean is also on one plate. Smaller plates are just as important as large ones- they are responsible for many earthquakes and volcanoes, such as those in Washington, Oregon and northern California. Plate Tectonics Plates are made of oceanic lithosphere (basalt), continental lithosphere (granite) or both. As the plates move, they interact with each other. This causes most of the world's large earthquakes, mountain ranges and major volcanoes. Geologic activity is generally found at or near plate boundaries. Divergent Plate Boundaries Plates separate & move away from each other. New plate material (oceanic lithosphere) is created as molten material fills in the rift. Most are located in the oceans (central Atlantic, caster Pacific, etc.), but some are on land (east Africa, Iceland). Location of Earthquakes and Volcanos The Mid-Atlantic Ridge Although it is mostly underwater, there are several islands located on top of it, such as Iceland and the Azores. The average spreading rate is about 1 inch per year. MAIN POINTS: New oceanic plate material is created. Small earthquakes are common, large ones are rare. Volcanic activity is common. Convergent Plate Boundaries Plates collide with each other. Plate material may be destroyed by subduction (if oceanic lithosphere is involved). Continental lithosphere does not subduct. The type of geologic activity depends upon what kind of lithosphere is involved Ocean-Ocean Convergent  One of the ocean floor plates is subducted. Volcanic activity creates island-arcs on the surviving plate. Earthquakes are common and may be large. Examples – Japan, Indonesia, Aleutian Islands Ocean continent convergent  The ocean floor plate is subducted, the continental plate is not. Volcanoes form on the edge of the continent. Earthquakes may be common and are potentially very large. Examples – west coasts of North and South America Continent Continent Convergent  Neither plate is subducted. Significant volcanic activity is unlikely. Earthquakes are relatively common and are potentially very large. Major mountain ranges are created. Examples – Himalaya Mts. and the Alps MAIN POINTS: Oceanic plate material is destroyed. Continental plate material isn’t subducted. Earthquakes of all sizes can occur. Volcanic activity is common if ocean floor is involved, but not at continent-continent boundaries. Transform Plate Boundaries Plates “slide” past each other. No new plate material is created, no old plate material is destroyed.  Most are found on the ocean floor, but some are on land – The San Andreas Fault. Volcanoes do not tend to form here. Motion along a transform plate boundary is not always smooth or continuous. Bends in the boundary can cause some sections to lock-up for long periods. This occurs near Los Angeles. Their last major earthquake was in 1857. Unlike the other plate boundaries which are created by movements of the asthenosphere, these mainly exist to connect divergent and/or convergent boundaries to one another. Despite their lack of volcanism, hot water (hydrothermal) systems are common and are major sites of exotic ecosystems. MAIN POINTS: Oceanic plate material is neither created nor destroyed. Earthquakes of all sizes can occur, but extremely large ones are not common. Significant volcanic activity is not likely. THINGS TO REMEMBER  Divergent activity creates new ocean floor material. Convergent activity destroys old ocean floor material. Transform activity does not create or destroy plate material, it just moves it to new locations. OTHER PLANETS AND MOONS: Know the geology, oceans and atmospheric conditions of the other planets (and their notable moons), types of planets. NEAR-EARTH OBJECTS (NEOs): Asteroids and comets; impacts of NEOs;     ancient impacts on Earth PLATE TECTONICS: The layers of the Earth – their composition and properties. What is significant about each layer. Earlier versions of the theory (Continental Drift, etc.) and how they differ from plate tectonics. PLATE TECTONICS: Types of plate boundaries – geologic activity (volcanoes, earthquakes, etc.), what kind of motion occurs (separation, collision, etc.), creation and    destruction of ocean floors.

EMT Drug: Albuterol Sulfate (ProAir, Proventil) -- ONLY ASSIST

Theology 8500: Christ's Infancy Narratives & God's Plan for Salvation Vocabulary

Sodium Polystyrene Sulfomate (Kayexalate) Overview

Body Paragraph 1 - Salvation