Sustainable Soil Management - Reduced Tillage

pt 4: Adrenal gland structure Cortex (steroids) + medulla (catecholamines) Three adrenal cortex layers Zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis Zona glomerulosa Secretes aldosterone (mineralocorticoid) Aldosterone function Increases Na+ reabsorption, K+ excretion; raises blood pressure Aldosterone release triggered by Low BP, high K+, renin-angiotensin system, ACTH Renin-angiotensin system Low BP → renin → Ang I → Ang II → aldosterone + vasoconstriction Zona fasciculata Secretes cortisol (glucocorticoid) Cortisol function Increases glucose, suppresses immune system, maintains blood pressure High cortisol effects Immune suppression, muscle wasting, hyperglycemia Zona reticularis Secretes adrenal androgens Adrenal androgens Weak sex hormones contributing to puberty and libido Adrenal medulla hormones Epinephrine and norepinephrine Epinephrine effects Increases heart rate, metabolic rate Norepinephrine effects Increases vasoconstriction and blood pressure Pancreas function Exocrine (digestive enzymes) + endocrine (insulin, glucagon) Alpha cells in pancreas Produce glucagon Beta cells in pancreas Produce insulin Glucagon function Increases blood glucose via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis Insulin function Decreases blood glucose by increasing cellular uptake Somatostatin from pancreas Inhibits insulin and glucagon release Type 1 diabetes Autoimmune destruction of beta cells → no insulin Type 2 diabetes Insulin resistance; cells do not respond to insulin Effects of insulin Promotes glucose uptake, fat storage, glycogen formation Ovarian hormones Estrogen and progesterone Estrogen function Female development, menstrual cycle regulation Progesterone function Maintains uterus for pregnancy Testicular hormone Testosterone Testosterone functions Male traits, sperm production, libido Placental hormones hCG, estrogen, progesterone hCG function Maintains corpus luteum early in pregnancy Kidney hormone EPO (erythropoietin) EPO function Stimulates RBC production when oxygen is low Heart hormone ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) ANP function Decreases blood pressure by reducing blood volume GI hormones Gastrin, secretin, CCK regulate digestion Skin hormone precursor Produces vitamin D precursor (cholecalciferol) Adipose hormone Leptin Leptin function Signals satiety and regulates metabolism Cushing’s syndrome Excess cortisol → moon face, buffalo hump, high glucose Addison’s disease Low cortisol/aldosterone → fatigue, low BP, hyperpigmentation Pheochromocytoma Adrenal medulla tumor causing excess epinephrine Conn’s syndrome Excess aldosterone → high BP, low K+ Hyperthyroidism symptoms Weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety, fast heartbeat Hypothyroidism symptoms Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance Goiter Enlarged thyroid due to iodine deficiency or overstimulation Primary endocrine disorder Problem in the gland itself Secondary endocrine disorder Problem in pituitary or hypothalamus Calcitriol (active vitamin D) Increases Ca2+ absorption in intestines Endocrine disruptors Chemicals interfering with hormone actions

pt 4: Adrenal gland structure Cortex (steroids) + medulla (catecholamines) Three adrenal cortex layers Zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis Zona glomerulosa Secretes aldosterone (mineralocorticoid) Aldosterone function Increases Na+ reabsorption, K+ excretion; raises blood pressure Aldosterone release triggered by Low BP, high K+, renin-angiotensin system, ACTH Renin-angiotensin system Low BP → renin → Ang I → Ang II → aldosterone + vasoconstriction Zona fasciculata Secretes cortisol (glucocorticoid) Cortisol function Increases glucose, suppresses immune system, maintains blood pressure High cortisol effects Immune suppression, muscle wasting, hyperglycemia Zona reticularis Secretes adrenal androgens Adrenal androgens Weak sex hormones contributing to puberty and libido Adrenal medulla hormones Epinephrine and norepinephrine Epinephrine effects Increases heart rate, metabolic rate Norepinephrine effects Increases vasoconstriction and blood pressure Pancreas function Exocrine (digestive enzymes) + endocrine (insulin, glucagon) Alpha cells in pancreas Produce glucagon Beta cells in pancreas Produce insulin Glucagon function Increases blood glucose via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis Insulin function Decreases blood glucose by increasing cellular uptake Somatostatin from pancreas Inhibits insulin and glucagon release Type 1 diabetes Autoimmune destruction of beta cells → no insulin Type 2 diabetes Insulin resistance; cells do not respond to insulin Effects of insulin Promotes glucose uptake, fat storage, glycogen formation Ovarian hormones Estrogen and progesterone Estrogen function Female development, menstrual cycle regulation Progesterone function Maintains uterus for pregnancy Testicular hormone Testosterone Testosterone functions Male traits, sperm production, libido Placental hormones hCG, estrogen, progesterone hCG function Maintains corpus luteum early in pregnancy Kidney hormone EPO (erythropoietin) EPO function Stimulates RBC production when oxygen is low Heart hormone ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) ANP function Decreases blood pressure by reducing blood volume GI hormones Gastrin, secretin, CCK regulate digestion Skin hormone precursor Produces vitamin D precursor (cholecalciferol) Adipose hormone Leptin Leptin function Signals satiety and regulates metabolism Cushing’s syndrome Excess cortisol → moon face, buffalo hump, high glucose Addison’s disease Low cortisol/aldosterone → fatigue, low BP, hyperpigmentation Pheochromocytoma Adrenal medulla tumor causing excess epinephrine Conn’s syndrome Excess aldosterone → high BP, low K+ Hyperthyroidism symptoms Weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety, fast heartbeat Hypothyroidism symptoms Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance Goiter Enlarged thyroid due to iodine deficiency or overstimulation Primary endocrine disorder Problem in the gland itself Secondary endocrine disorder Problem in pituitary or hypothalamus Calcitriol (active vitamin D) Increases Ca2+ absorption in intestines Endocrine disruptors Chemicals interfering with hormone actions

Reduction of Risk Protention

week 2 - reducing tillage

Reagan's Reduction of Big Government - key facts

Lesson 4.3: Reducing Front-End Loads

Unit 1: Psychology’s History and Approaches Big Idea: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This unit asks: Why do people think, feel, and behave the way they do, and how do psychologists study it? 1. Early Schools of Thought Structuralism Focused on breaking conscious experiences into smaller parts. Example: Describing every taste, smell, and feeling while eating pizza. Functionalism Focused on WHY behaviors and thoughts exist. Example: Fear exists because it helps humans survive danger. Connection: Structuralists asked “What are thoughts made of?” Functionalists asked “What purpose do thoughts serve?” 2. Major Psychological Perspectives Biological Perspective Behavior comes from the brain, genetics, and hormones. Example: Depression connected to serotonin levels. Behavioral Perspective Behavior is learned through rewards and punishments. Example: A dog learns tricks because it gets treats. Cognitive Perspective Focuses on thinking, memory, and problem-solving. Example: Why students remember some facts better than others. Humanistic Perspective Humans naturally strive for growth. Example: Trying to achieve goals and improve yourself. Psychodynamic Perspective Unconscious conflicts affect behavior. Example: Getting unusually angry because of hidden stress. Evolutionary Perspective Behaviors developed because they helped survival. Example: Humans naturally fearing dangerous animals. Sociocultural Perspective Behavior is shaped by culture and society. Example: Different cultures have different expectations for personal space. 3. Research Methods Experiment Used to determine cause and effect. Independent Variable What the researcher changes. Dependent Variable What the researcher measures. Example: Studying whether sleep affects test scores. * Amount of sleep = IV * Test score = DV Correlation Shows relationship between variables. Important: Correlation does NOT equal causation. Example: Ice cream sales and drowning both rise during summer. Random Assignment Participants randomly placed into groups. Helps reduce bias. Double-Blind Procedure Neither researchers nor participants know who receives treatment. Prevents expectations from affecting results. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves asking: * Which perspective best explains this behavior? * Which research method should be used? * Why doesn’t correlation prove causation? Example: A psychologist studies how rewards affect studying. → Behavioral perspective + experiment Unit 2: Biological Basis of Behavior Big Idea: Your brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics all shape behavior. The whole unit asks: How do your body and brain create thoughts, emotions, and behavior? 1. Nature vs. Nurture = Who You Are Main Idea: Your behavior comes from BOTH: * Nature = genetics/heredity * Nurture = environment and experiences Example: Someone may inherit anxiety tendencies but stressful experiences can make anxiety stronger. 2. Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain + spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Sympathetic Nervous System Activates during stress. Example: Heart racing before giving a speech. Parasympathetic Nervous System Calms the body afterward. 3. Neurotransmitters Dopamine Reward and pleasure. Example: Social media likes feel rewarding. Serotonin Mood and sleep. Low levels linked to depression. Acetylcholine Movement and memory. Linked to Alzheimer’s disease. GABA Calms nervous system. Low GABA linked to anxiety. 4. Brain Structures Frontal Lobe Decision-making and personality. Occipital Lobe Vision. Temporal Lobe Hearing and memory. Hippocampus Memory formation. Amygdala Fear and aggression. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student panicking before a test: * amygdala activates fear * sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate * adrenaline releases Unit 3: Sensation and Perception Big Idea: Sensation detects information. Perception interprets information. This unit asks: How does the brain create your experience of the world? 1. Sensation Absolute Threshold Smallest amount of stimulation needed to notice something. Example: Hearing a quiet text notification. Difference Threshold Smallest noticeable difference between stimuli. Example: Noticing the TV volume changed. Sensory Adaptation Becoming less aware of constant stimulation. Example: Not noticing your hoodie after wearing it awhile. 2. Vision Rods Help see in dim light. Cones Detect color. Blind Spot Area without receptors. 3. Hearing Frequency Determines pitch. Amplitude Determines loudness. 4. Perception Gestalt Principles The brain organizes pieces into meaningful wholes. Example: Seeing a complete logo even with missing parts. Depth Perception Ability to see distance in 3D. Example: Catching a volleyball. Perceptual Set Expectations affect perception. Example: Misreading a word because you expected something else. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The exam often gives optical illusions or perception scenarios. Example: A person stops noticing a strong smell after 10 minutes. → sensory adaptation Unit 4: Learning Big Idea: Behavior changes because of experience. This unit asks: How do humans and animals learn behaviors? 1. Classical Conditioning Learning through association. Pavlov’s Dogs Dogs learned to associate a bell with food. Unconditioned Stimulus Naturally causes response. Conditioned Stimulus Previously neutral stimulus causing learned response. Example: Feeling hungry when hearing the microwave beep. 2. Operant Conditioning Learning through rewards and punishments. Positive Reinforcement Adding something good to increase behavior. Example: Getting money for good grades. Negative Reinforcement Removing something unpleasant. Example: Seatbelt alarm stopping. Punishment Decreases behavior. 3. Observational Learning Learning by watching others. Example: Kids copying influencers online. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION The AP exam loves reinforcement examples. Example: A student studies harder after praise from parents. → positive reinforcement Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology Big Idea: Humans think, remember, solve problems, and use language. This unit asks: How does the mind process information? 1. Memory Process Encoding Getting information into memory. Storage Keeping information over time. Retrieval Getting information back. 2. Types of Memory Sensory Memory Very brief memory. Short-Term Memory Temporary limited storage. Long-Term Memory Relatively permanent storage. Working Memory Actively using information. Example: Doing math in your head. 3. Forgetting Proactive Interference Old information disrupts new information. Retroactive Interference New information disrupts old information. Example: Forgetting old password after learning a new one. 4. Problem Solving Algorithm Step-by-step method. Heuristic Mental shortcut. Confirmation Bias Looking for information supporting beliefs. Example: Only reading opinions you already agree with. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student mixes up Spanish vocabulary from last year with current vocabulary. → proactive interference Unit 6: Developmental Psychology Big Idea: Humans develop physically, mentally, and socially across life. This unit asks: How do people change from infancy through adulthood? 1. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage Babies learn through senses and actions. Object Permanence Understanding objects still exist when hidden. Example: Babies searching for hidden toys. Preoperational Stage Children use language but think egocentrically. Egocentrism Difficulty understanding another perspective. Example: A child assuming everyone sees exactly what they see. Concrete Operational Stage Logical thinking develops. Formal Operational Stage Abstract thinking develops. Example: Thinking about hypothetical situations. 2. Attachment Strong emotional bond with caregivers. Secure Attachment Healthy trust and comfort. 3. Parenting Styles Authoritative Strict but supportive. Usually healthiest. Authoritarian Strict with little warmth. Permissive Warm but few rules. BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A teenager exploring identity and future goals. → Erikson’s identity vs role confusion stage Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality Big Idea: Motivation drives behavior, emotions affect actions, and personality shapes how people interact. 1. Motivation Drive-Reduction Theory People act to reduce discomfort. Example: Eating when hungry. Maslow’s Hierarchy Basic needs come before higher goals. Example: Someone struggling financially may focus on survival before self-esteem. 2. Emotion Theories James-Lange Theory Physical response first. Example: Heart races THEN fear is felt. Cannon-Bard Theory Emotion and physical response happen together. Schachter Two-Factor Theory Emotion depends on physical arousal plus interpretation. 3. Personality Trait Theory Personality made of stable characteristics. Big Five Traits * openness * conscientiousness * extraversion * agreeableness * neuroticism BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION A student interpreting sweaty palms before a game as excitement. → Schachter two-factor theory Unit 8: Clinical Psychology Big Idea: Psychological disorders affect thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This unit asks: How are disorders identified and treated? 1. Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder Constant excessive worry. Phobias Irrational fears. OCD Obsessions and compulsions. 2. Mood Disorders Major Depressive Disorder Persistent sadness and loss of interest. Bipolar Disorder Extreme mood swings. 3. Schizophrenia Disordered thinking and perception. Hallucinations False sensory experiences. Delusions False beliefs. 4

D. Quotes - Identity Reduction, Space Reduction, The Past, Privacy, Absorption of Ideas / Psychological Manipulation

Key Principles of Organic Synthesis - Oxidation and Reduction

PRE-IB Chemistry Notes (based on your test) 1. Molecular Formula English A molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a molecule. Example: * H₂O = 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom * C₆H₁₂O₆ = 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen, 6 oxygen Important * Molecular formula = actual number * Empirical formula = simplest ratio Example: * Molecular formula: C₆H₁₂O₆ * Empirical formula: CH₂O Test question “What information does the molecular formula provide?” Correct answer: ✅ The actual numbers of atoms in a molecule ⸻ Русский Молекулярная формула показывает настоящее количество атомов в молекуле. Пример: * H₂O = 2 атома водорода и 1 атом кислорода * C₆H₁₂O₆ = 6 углеродов, 12 водородов, 6 кислородов Важно * Molecular formula = настоящее количество * Empirical formula = простое соотношение ⸻ 2. Isotopes English Isotopes are atoms of the same element with: * same number of protons * different number of neutrons Example: * Carbon-12 * Carbon-14 Both have: * 6 protons But different neutrons. Formula Neutrons = mass number − atomic number ⸻ Русский Изотопы — это атомы одного элемента: * одинаковое количество протонов * разное количество нейтронов Формула: Нейтроны = массовое число − атомный номер ⸻ 3. Protons, Neutrons and Electrons English Proton number = atomic number Electron number Neutral atom: electrons = protons Ion: * positive ion → lost electrons * negative ion → gained electrons Example ^{43}_{20}Ca^{2+} * protons = 20 * neutrons = 43 − 20 = 23 * electrons = 20 − 2 = 18 ⸻ Русский Протоны = атомный номер Электроны У нейтрального атома: электроны = протоны Ион: * плюс → потерял электроны * минус → получил электроны Пример: Ca²⁺: * 20 протонов * 23 нейтрона * 18 электронов ⸻ 4. Electron Configuration English Electrons fill shells. Rules * 1st shell = 2 electrons * 2nd shell = 8 * 3rd shell = 8 Examples Mg (12): 2,8,2 Cl (17): 2,8,7 Al (13): 2,8,3 Outer shell electrons Mg → 2 Cl → 7 ⸻ Русский Электроны распределяются по оболочкам. Примеры: * Mg = 2,8,2 * Cl = 2,8,7 * Al = 2,8,3 Внешние электроны: * Mg → 2 * Cl → 7 ⸻ 5. Ionic Bonding English Ionic bonding happens when electrons are transferred. * metals lose electrons * non-metals gain electrons Example: Mg + Cl Mg loses 2 electrons. Each chlorine gains 1. Formula: MgCl₂ ⸻ Русский Ионная связь появляется, когда электроны переходят от одного атома к другому. * металл теряет электроны * неметалл получает Пример: MgCl₂ ⸻ 6. Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Formula Mass English Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) Average mass of atoms compared with carbon-12. Example: Cl = 35.5 Relative Formula Mass (Mr) Total of all atomic masses in a formula. Example: H₂O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 ⸻ Русский Relative Atomic Mass Средняя масса атомов элемента. Relative Formula Mass Сумма всех атомных масс в формуле. Пример: H₂O = 18 ⸻ 7. Moles English Formula triangle n=\frac{m}{M} n = moles m = mass M = molar mass Example NaCl: M = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 If mass = 117 g 117 ÷ 58.5 = 2 mol ⸻ Русский Формула: n = m / M n — моли m — масса M — молярная масса ⸻ 8. Concentration English Formula: c=\frac{n}{V} c = concentration n = moles V = volume in dm³ Important 1000 cm³ = 1 dm³ ⸻ Русский Формула: c = n / V V обязательно в dm³ 1000 cm³ = 1 dm³ ⸻ 9. Acids and Alkalis English Acid Produces H⁺ ions Alkali Produces OH⁻ ions Examples: * HCl = acid * NaOH = alkali ⸻ Русский Кислота выделяет H⁺ Щёлочь выделяет OH⁻ ⸻ 10. Strong and Weak Acids English Strong acid Fully ionizes in water. Example: HCl Weak acid Partially ionizes. Example: CH₃COOH Important Strong ≠ concentrated ⸻ Русский Сильная кислота полностью распадается. Слабая — только частично. ⸻ 11. Amphoteric Compounds English Amphoteric substances can act as: * acid * base Example: Al₂O₃ ⸻ Русский Амфотерные вещества могут быть: * кислотой * основанием ⸻ 12. pH and Indicators English pH scale * below 7 = acid * 7 = neutral * above 7 = alkali Indicators Litmus: * acid → red * alkali → blue Phenolphthalein: * acid → colorless * alkali → pink ⸻ Русский pH: * меньше 7 = кислота * 7 = нейтрально * больше 7 = щёлочь ⸻ 13. Acid-Base Titration English Titration is used to find concentration. Steps 1. Add indicator 2. Add acid/base slowly 3. Endpoint color change 4. Use formula Common indicators * phenolphthalein * methyl orange ⸻ Русский Титрование используют для нахождения концентрации. Шаги: 1. Добавить индикатор 2. Медленно добавлять раствор 3. Смотреть изменение цвета ⸻ 14. Redox Reactions English Oxidation Loss of electrons Reduction Gain of electrons OIL RIG: * Oxidation Is Loss * Reduction Is Gain ⸻ Русский Окисление = потеря электронов Восстановление = получение электронов ⸻ 15. Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic English Hydrophobic “Water-fearing” Does not mix with water. Example: oil Hydrophilic “Water-loving” Mixes with water. Example: salt ⸻ Русский Hydrophobic: не смешивается с водой Hydrophilic: смешивается с водой ⸻ 16. Organic Chemistry Naming (IMPORTANT FOR TEST) English Alkane Only single bonds General formula: C_nH_{2n+2} Alkene Contains double bond General formula: C_nH_{2n} Alkyne Contains triple bond General formula: C_nH_{2n-2} ⸻ Русский Алкан: только одинарные связи Алкен: двойная связь Алкин: тройная связь ⸻ 17. IUPAC Naming Quick Rules English Step 1 Find longest chain. Step 2 Count carbons: * meth = 1 * eth = 2 * prop = 3 * but = 4 * pent = 5 * hex = 6 Step 3 Find double bond. Step 4 Number chain from nearest double bond. Step 5 Name branches: * methyl * ethyl ⸻ Русский 1. Найти самую длинную цепь 2. Посчитать углероды 3. Найти двойную связь 4. Нумеровать с ближайшей двойной связи 5. Назвать ответвления ⸻ 18. Combustion English Combustion = burning in oxygen. Example: C_5H_{12}+8O_2\rightarrow5CO_2+6H_2O Products: * carbon dioxide * water ⸻ Русский Горение — реакция с кислородом. Продукты: * CO₂ * H₂O ⸻ 19. Activity Series English More reactive metals replace less reactive metals. Mg is more reactive than H: → reacts with acid Cu is less reactive than Fe: → cannot replace Fe ⸻ Русский Более активный металл вытесняет менее активный

Así se dice 4 Reduce y reutiliza y el subjuntivo

oxidation reduction

Waste reduction

RRR reduce reuse recycle

The extent to which 'big government' was reduced 1981-96

Exam 3: Harm Reduction/Abstinence Models, Treatment Settings, General Tips TAY

(3) Prejudice and reducing prejudice

l7 reduced

LEC 4: SMELTING REDUCTION PROCESS