20. Primena SAT rešavača u rešavanju CSP problema nad konačnim domenima. Pseudo-Bulovska ograničenja i ograničenja kardinalnosti. Linearna ograničenja.

• Autotrophs: Organisms that produce their own organic food molecules using energy from light or chemical bonds. • Overall Equation: \(6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{light energy} \rightarrow \text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2\) • Site of Photosynthesis: Organ: Leaf | Organelle: Chloroplast The Two Main Stages 1. Light-Dependent Reactions: • Location: Thylakoid membranes (labeled X in the diagram). • Reactant used: Water (\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\)). • Products made: Oxygen (\(\text{O}_{2}\)), ATP, and NADPH. 2. Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions): • Location: Stroma. • Reactant used: Carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_{2}\)). • Products made: Glucose (\(\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6\)), ADP, and \(\text{NADP}^{+}\). Reactant & Product Tracking • Source of Carbon in Glucose: Carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_{2}\)). • Source of Hydrogen in Glucose: Water (\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\)). • Source of Released Oxygen Gas (\(\text{O}_{2}\)): Water (\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\)). • Glucose Storage: Excess glucose is stored as starch. • Glucose Transport: Moved through the plant via phloem tissue. Light & Pigments • Light-Capturing Molecule: Chlorophyll. • Most Effective Light Colors: Blue and Red. • Least Effective Light Color: Green (it is reflected, which is why leaves look green). Leaf Anatomy & Gas Exchange • Cuticle: Waxy, waterproof outer layer that prevents water loss. • Stomata: Microscopic pores that control gas exchange (\(\text{CO}_{2}\) in, \(\text{O}_{2}\)/water vapor out). • Guard Cells: Cells that physically open and close the stomata. • Xylem: Vascular tissue that transports water up from roots to leaves. • Root Hairs: Hair-like extensions that increase surface area for water absorption. Effect of Open Stomata: • Photosynthesis: Increases (more \(\text{CO}_{2}\) enters). • Transpiration (Water Loss): Increases (water vapor escapes). • Plant Water Levels: Decreases. • Chlorophyll / Chloroplast Levels: Stays the same. 🔋 Part 2: Cellular Respiration Master Sheet Core Formula & Concepts • Overall Aerobic Equation: \(\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{ATP}\) • Primary Energy Source: Glucose. • Primary Useful Product: ATP (used directly for cellular work like active transport and muscle contraction). • Waste Products: Carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_{2}\)) and Water (\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\)). The Three Aerobic Stages (In Order) 1. Glycolysis: • Location: Cytoplasm. • Details: Splits glucose into pyruvate. Does not require oxygen. 2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle): • Location: Mitochondrial Matrix. • Details: Breaks down pyruvate, releases \(\text{CO}_{2}\), and charges electron carriers (NADH and \(\text{FADH}_{2}\)). 3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC): • Location: Inner Mitochondrial Membrane (cristae). • Details: Yields the greatest amount of ATP. Uses Oxygen (\(\text{O}_{2}\)) as the final electron/hydrogen acceptor to form water. Cellular Respiration Atom Tracking • Where the Carbons from Glucose end up: \(\text{CO}_{2}\). • Where the Hydrogens/Electrons from Glucose end up: \(\text{H}_2\text{O}\). 🏃 Part 3: Anaerobic Pathways, Exercise, & Redox Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation) • Definition: Breakdown of glucose to generate ATP without oxygen. • Location: Cytoplasm. • ATP Yield Comparison: Aerobic respiration yields 36–38 ATP | Anaerobic respiration yields only 2 ATP. • Main Purpose of Fermentation: Regenerates \(\text{NAD}^{+}\) so glycolysis can keep running. • Lactic Acid Fermentation: Occurs in animals. Produces lactic acid. • Alcohol Fermentation: Occurs in yeast/plants. Produces ethanol and \(\text{CO}_{2}\). Chemical Changes During Strenuous Exercise • ATP: Decreases (used up rapidly). • ADP: Increases (byproduct of breaking down ATP). • Glucose: Decreases (consumed as fuel). • \(\text{CO}_{2}\): Increases (waste product builds up). • Lactic Acid: Increases (due to a lack of oxygen causing a switch to fermentation). Redox Reactions (Electrons & Hydrogen) • Oxidation: The loss of electrons or hydrogen atoms. • Reduction: The gain of electrons or hydrogen atoms. • Memory Trick: OIL RIG (Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain). 🔄 Part 4: Plants vs. Animals (The Big Picture) Plant Gas Concentrations in a Sealed Container • In the Light: \(\text{CO}_{2}\) decreases. (Photosynthesis runs faster than respiration, consuming \(\text{CO}_{2}\)). • In the Dark: \(\text{CO}_{2}\) increases. (Photosynthesis stops without light, but respiration continues, releasing \(\text{CO}_{2}\)). Comparing Organisms • Plants/Autotrophs: Perform both photosynthesis and cellular respiration. • Animals/Heterotrophs: Perform only cellular respiration. • Plant Roots: Perform only cellular respiration (they have no access to light and lack chloroplasts). • Plant Leaves: Perform both photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Wykład III - Refleksja nad praktyką uzasadniania rozstrzygnięć sądowych

III No Hay Nadie Mas

OFERTY PRACY / Job Offers - Słownictwo / Vocabulary

nadie sabe nada 4.18.26

TEKS **Puisi adalah karya sastra yang mengekspresikan pikiran dan perasaan menggunakan kata-kata indah, padat, dan bermakna, disusun dalam baris dan bait, serta dapat memanfaatkan rima, irama, dan gaya bahasa.** ### Jenis Puisi * **Puisi Lama:** * Pantun: 4 baris, sampiran (baris 1-2), isi (baris 3-4), rima a-b-a-b. * Syair: 4 baris, semua baris berisi, rima a-a-a-a, biasanya bercerita. * Gurindam: 2 baris, baris 1 sebab, baris 2 akibat, rima a-a. * Mantra: Kata keramat untuk tujuan tertentu, bahasa berulang dan berirama. * Seloka: Nasihat atau peribahasa, rima sama. * **Puisi Baharu:** * Puisi Bebas: Tidak terikat jumlah baris, suku kata, atau rima. * Soneta: 14 baris, terbagi 8 dan 6 baris, rima teratur. * Balada: Bercerita tentang peristiwa, ada watak dan jalan cerita. * Elegi: Perasaan sedih, ratapan, atau kehilangan. * Ode: Memuji sesuatu atau seseorang, nada tinggi. * Haiku: 3 baris, pola suku kata 5-7-5, ringkas, tentang alam. * Pantun Kiasan/Puisi Moden: Gaya bebas dengan unsur rima, emosi pribadi. ### Unsur Intrinsik Puisi * **Unsur Batin:** Tema, Rasa, Nada, Amanat. * **Unsur Fisik:** Rima/Irama, Gaya Bahasa, Diksi, Imaji, Tipografi, Kata Konkret. ### Unsur Ekstrinsik Puisi * Unsur Biografi: Latar belakang dan pengalaman hidup penyair. * Unsur Sosial: Situasi dan kondisi masyarakat saat puisi ditulis. * Unsur Nilai: Nilai kehidupan (pendidikan, seni, hukum, dll.). ### Majas dalam Puisi * Personifikasi: Memberi sifat manusia pada benda/alam. * Metafora: Membandingkan secara langsung. * Simile: Membandingkan dengan kata "seperti", "bagaikan". * Hiperbola: Mengungkapkan sesuatu secara berlebihan. Teks ini menjelaskan pengertian, jenis, unsur, dan majas dalam puisi. **Teks prosedur berisi panduan langkah-langkah sistematis untuk menyelesaikan tugas atau kegiatan.** ### Pengertian Teks Prosedur * Teks prosedur memberikan panduan berupa langkah-langkah atau tahapan untuk menyelesaikan tugas atau kegiatan dengan benar. * Teks ini memberikan instruksi terperinci agar pembaca dapat mengikuti arahan. * KBBI mendefinisikan prosedur sebagai tahap kegiatan untuk menyelesaikan aktivitas atau metode memecahkan masalah. * Teks prosedur berisi cara membuat atau melakukan sesuatu, terdiri dari tahapan dan memiliki kalimat imperatif. * Menurut Ismail Masya, prosedur adalah rangkaian tugas yang saling berhubungan berdasarkan urutan waktu dan tata cara tertentu untuk melaksanakan pekerjaan yang dilakukan berulang-ulang. ### Ciri Kebahasaan Teks Prosedur * **Imperatif**: Berisi perintah, permintaan, atau larangan (Contoh: Hati-hati saat menggoreng!). * **Deklaratif**: Berisi pernyataan (Contoh: Risol mayones cocok disajikan untuk keluarga.). * **Interogatif**: Berisi pertanyaan (Contoh: Bagaimana cara membuat risol?). * **Persyaratan**: Menunjukkan syarat menggunakan kata seperti jika, apabila, kalau, asalkan. * **Temporal**: Menunjukkan urutan waktu menggunakan kata seperti lalu, kemudian, setelah itu, selanjutnya. * **Urutan**: Menunjukkan urutan menggunakan kata seperti pertama, kedua, ketiga. * **Kuantitas**: Menunjukkan jumlah atau durasi (Contoh: 2 butir telur atau 1 jam). * **Penunjuk**: Menggunakan kata seperti ini, itu, tersebut (Contoh: Aduk adonan tersebut.). * **Persona**: Menggunakan kata ganti seperti saya, kamu, Anda, kita, kalian. * **Verba Material**: Menunjukkan tindakan fisik (Contoh: menggoreng, mengaduk, mengiris). * **Verba Tingkah Laku**: Menunjukkan perilaku atau proses pikiran (Contoh: memahami, berpikir). ### Struktur Penyajian Data dalam Teks Prosedur * Terdiri dari judul, tujuan, alat dan bahan, langkah-langkah, serta penutup. * Penulisan langkah menggunakan nomor atau poin, konjungsi temporal, dan kalimat perintah. * Data harus jelas dan akurat, mencantumkan ukuran, jumlah, waktu, atau petunjuk khusus. * Media penyajian dapat berupa teks, infografik, atau video tutorial. * Cara menyusun meliputi penentuan topik dan tujuan, pengumpulan informasi valid, penyusunan

Contributions of Perarignar Anna and Socio-Political Movements in Tamil Nadu

NAD and NADP

¡Hola! Привет! / Здравствуйте! ¡Buenos días! Доброе утро! / Здравствуйте утром. ¡Buenas tardes! Добрый день! ¡Buenas noches! Добрый вечер!; также «спокойной ночи» перед сном. ¡Hasta luego! Пока! / До скорого. ¡Hasta pronto! До скорого! ¡Hasta la vista! До свидания! ¡Hasta mañana! До завтра! ¡Adiós! Прощай(те)! / До свидания! ¿Qué tal? Как дела? ¿Qué tal la vida? Как жизнь? ¿Qué tal la familia? Как семья? Bien, gracias. Хорошо, спасибо. Todo va bien. Всё хорошо. (Буквально: всё идёт хорошо.) Más o menos bien. Более или менее хорошо. Así así. Так себе. Regular. Так себе; более-менее. Por favor. Пожалуйста; будьте добры (при просьбе). Muchas gracias. Большое спасибо. De nada. Не за что; пожалуйста (в ответ на благодарность). Mucho gusto. Очень приятно. Encantado. Очень приятно (говорит мужчина). Encantada. Очень приятно (говорит женщина). Igualmente. Взаимно; мне тоже приятно. ¿Y tú? А ты? ¿Y usted? А Вы? (вежливо) Soy ... Я ... / Я являюсь ... ¿Es usted de ...? Вы из ...? No, soy de ... Нет, я из ... señor господин; обращение к мужчине señora госпожа; обращение к замужней женщине или вежливое обращение к женщине señorita обращение к молодой или незамужней женщине; употребление зависит от ситуации don дон; уважительное обращение перед мужским именем doña донья; уважительное обращение перед женским именем tú ты; неформальное обращение usted Вы; вежливое обращение к одному человеку de из; от; предлог, обозначающий происхождение abogado / abogada адвокат actor актёр actriz актриса banquero / banquera банкир médico / médica врач guía гид; проводник periodista журналист / журналистка ingeniero / ingeniera инженер enfermera медсестра músico / música музыкант / музыкантка camarero / camarera официант / официантка escritor / escritora писатель / писательница cocinero / cocinera повар poeta поэт / поэтесса profesor / profesora преподаватель / преподавательница dependiente / dependienta продавец / продавщица constructor / constructora строитель pintor / pintora художник / художница economista экономист / экономистка jurista юрист / юристка España Испания Madrid Мадрид español / española испанец / испанка; испанский / испанская Rusia Россия Moscú Москва ruso / rusa русский / русская Francia Франция París Париж francés / francesa француз / француженка; французский / французская Bélgica Бельгия Bruselas Брюссель belga бельгиец / бельгийка; форма одна для обоих родов Holanda Голландия (в учебнике) Ámsterdam Амстердам holandés / holandesa голландец / голландка; голландский / голландская Italia Италия Roma Рим italiano / italiana итальянец / итальянка; итальянский / итальянская Grecia Греция Atenas Афины griego / griega грек / гречанка; греческий / греческая Portugal Португалия Lisboa Лиссабон portugués / portuguesa португалец / португалка; португальский / португальская Alemania Германия Berlín Берлин alemán / alemana немец / немка; немецкий / немецкая Dinamarca Дания Copenhague Копенгаген danés / danesa датчанин / датчанка; датский / датская China Китай Pekín Пекин chino / china китаец / китаянка; китайский / китайская Japón Япония Tokio Токио japonés / japonesa японец / японка; японский / японская Turquía Турция Estambul Стамбул turco / turca турок / турчанка; турецкий / турецкая Inglaterra Англия Gran Bretaña Великобритания Londres Лондон inglés / inglesa англичанин / англичанка; английский / английская Estados Unidos Соединённые Штаты Америки; США Washington Вашингтон norteamericano / norteamericana североамериканец / североамериканка; в учебнике — «американец / американка» Norteamérica Северная Америка (это не точный синоним США) Marruecos Марокко Rabat Рабат marroquí марокканец / марокканка; форма одна для обоих родов chico мальчик chica девочка amigo друг amiga подруга hermano брат hermana сестра libro книга (мужской род) casa дом alumno ученик alumna ученица museo музей playa пляж papá папа día день policía полицейский / полицейская; также полиция mano рука radio радио problema проблема; существительное мужского рода programa программа; существительное мужского рода tema тема; существительное мужского рода planeta планета; существительное мужского рода padre отец madre мать café кофе calle улица coche автомобиль noche ночь hombre мужчина tarde вечер; в выражениях приветствия — день/после полудня amor любовь flor цветок sol солнце sal соль avión самолёт operación операция lápiz карандаш luz свет país страна crisis кризис césped газон; трава pared стена estación станция; время года ciudad город cuestión вопрос verdad правда pensión пенсия; пансион/гостевой дом — по контексту felicidad счастье estudiante студент / студентка cliente клиент / клиентка Buenos días, señorita. Доброе утро, сеньорита. Bien, gracias. ¿Y tú? Хорошо, спасибо. А ты? Regular. Hasta luego. Так себе. Пока. Hasta mañana. До завтра. Buenas tardes, doña Rosa. Добрый день, донья Роса. Hola, señor Pérez. Здравствуйте, сеньор Перес. Más o menos bien, gracias. Более или менее хорошо, спасибо. Hasta la vista. До свидания. Adiós, doña Rosa. До свидания, донья Роса. Soy Rocío García. Я Росио Гарсия. Soy Sergio Iglesias. Я Серхио Иглесиас. ¿Es usted de Toledo? Вы из Толедо? No, soy de Sevilla. Нет, я из Севильи. Soy ingeniero. Я инженер.

### **1. Pigments, Photosystems, and Leaf Color** * **Light Perception:** Sunlight consists of colors in the visible spectrum (**ROY G BIV**). We only see **reflected light**, not absorbed light. * **Pigments:** * **Chlorophyll A:** Main photosynthetic pigment; absorbs violet, blue, and red light while **reflecting green light**. * **Chlorophyll B:** Accessory pigment; absorbs blue, orange, and red light while **reflecting green light**. * **Carotenoids:** Accessory pigments; absorb blue and green light while **reflecting yellow, orange, and red light**. * **Autumn Leaf Color Changes:** In spring, carotenoids are masked by abundant chlorophyll. In autumn, shorter days reduce sunlight, causing chlorophyll to break down and reveal carotenoids; thus, orange/yellow/red light is **reflected**. * **Photosystem Structure:** Photosystems are located on the **thylakoid membrane** and consist of proteins, chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, and carotenoids. * **Antenna Complex:** Contains chlorophyll B, carotenoids, and proteins. It captures photons and passes solar energy around, but **does not donate electrons**. * **Reaction Center:** Contains a pair of **Chlorophyll A** molecules. It absorbs solar energy to excite low-energy electrons and **donates high-energy electrons** to the primary electron acceptor. * **Redox in Photosystems:** When the reaction center donates high-energy electrons, it becomes **oxidized**; the electron acceptor gains them and becomes **reduced**. The lost electrons are replenished by an **electron donor** that donates low-energy electrons and becomes oxidized. --- ### **2. Light-Dependent Reactions & Electron Transport Chain** * **Location:** Occurs on the **thylakoid membrane**. * **Photosystem II (PS II) vs. Photosystem I (PS I):** * **PS II:** Absorbs sunlight at **\\(680\text{ nm}\\)**. Its electron donor is **water (\\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\\))**, which is split/oxidized into \\(2\text{ e}^-\\), \\(2\text{ H}^+\\), and oxygen gas (\\(\text{O}_2\\)) inside the thylakoid space. PS II uses electron energy to drive **ATP synthesis**. * **PS I:** Absorbs sunlight at **\\(700\text{ nm}\\)**. Replaces its lost electrons directly from **Plastocyanin (PC)**. PS I uses re-excited electrons to make **NADPH**. * **Sequential Electron Order:** \\(\text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{PS II (680 nm)} \rightarrow \text{Plastoquinone (PQ)} \rightarrow \text{B}_6\text{f complex} \rightarrow \text{Plastocyanin (PC)} \rightarrow \text{PS I (700 nm)} \rightarrow \text{Ferredoxin (FD)} \rightarrow \text{NADP}^+\text{ reductase} \rightarrow \text{NADP}^+ \rightarrow \text{NADPH}\\). * **Mobile Electron Carriers:** Light reactions use **3 mobile carriers**: * **Plastoquinone (PQ):** Accepts electrons from PS II and delivers them to the \\(\text{B}_6\text{f}\\) complex. * **Plastocyanin (PC):** Carries electrons with the **lowest energy**. * **Ferredoxin (FD):** Carries electrons with the **highest energy** because its electrons were re-excited by \\(700\text{ nm}\\) light at PS I. * **Proton Pump & Chemiosmosis:** * The **\\(\text{B}_6\text{f}\\) complex** is the single proton pump in photosynthesis. It uses electron energy to actively pump \\(\text{H}^+\\) ions from the stroma into the thylakoid space, making the thylakoid space **more acidic (lower pH, higher \\(\text{H}^+\\) concentration)**. * \\(\text{H}^+\\) ions rush back into the stroma through **ATP synthase** down their concentration gradient via **facilitated diffusion (passive transport)**, synthesizing ATP (chemiosmosis). * **Products & Energetics:** Produces **\\(\text{O}_2\\)** (in thylakoid space), **ATP**, and **NADPH** (both in stroma). Because ATP is produced, light-dependent reactions are **exergonic**. * **Final Electron Acceptor:** **\\(\text{NADP}^+\\)**, which is reduced to NADPH by the enzyme \\(\text{NADP}^+\\) reductase. --- ### **3. Photosynthetic ETC vs. Mitochondrial ETC** * **Mobile Carriers:** Photosynthesis uses **3** (PQ, PC, FD); mitochondria use **2** (Ubiquinone, Cytochrome C). * **Proton Pumps:** Photosynthesis uses **1** (\\(\text{B}_6\text{f}\\) complex); mitochondria use **3** (\\(\text{NADH}\\) dehydrogenase, \\(\text{BC}_1\\) complex, cytochrome oxidase complex). *(Do not confuse \\(\text{B}_6\text{f}\\) in thylakoids with \\(\text{BC}_1\\) in mitochondria!)*. --- ### **4. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle / \\(C_3\\) Pathway)** * **Location & Energetics:** Takes place in the **stroma** of chloroplasts (or cytoplasm of cyanobacteria). It is an **endergonic** process (\\(\Delta G > 0\\), non-spontaneous) that consumes ATP and NADPH. * **Three Phases:** 1. **Carbon Fixation:** \\(\text{CO}_2\\) (\\(1\text{C}\\)) combines with **RuBP** (\\(5\text{C}\\) sugar), catalyzed by the enzyme **Rubisco**, to form two \\(3\text{C}\\) molecules of **3-phosphoglycerate (3-PG / PGA)**. *(Inorganic carbon becomes fixed into organic compounds)*. 2. **Reduction:** Uses \\(12\text{ ATP}\\) and \\(12\text{ NADPH}\\) to reduce \\(12\text{ PGA}\\) into \\(12\text{ G3P}\\) (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate). **G3P is the direct product** of the Calvin cycle. Two G3P molecules leave the cycle to form **1 glucose molecule** (indirect product). 3. **Regeneration of RuBP:** Consumes \\(6\text{ ATP}\\) to regenerate RuBP from the remaining 10 G3P molecules so the cycle can continue. * **Energy Requirements per Glucose:** Requires **6 turns** of the cycle, consuming **\\(18\text{ ATP}\\)** (\\(12\\) in reduction, \\(6\\) in regeneration) and **\\(12\text{ NADPH}\\)** (used only in reduction). --- ### **5. Photorespiration & Plant Adaptations (\\(C_3\\), \\(C_4\\), and \\(CAM\\))** * **Photorespiration:** Under hot, dry conditions, plants close their **stomata** to prevent water loss, causing internal \\(\text{CO}_2\\) to drop and \\(\text{O}_2\\) to build up. **Rubisco** binds \\(\text{O}_2\\) instead of \\(\text{CO}_2\\) to RuBP, creating a **wasteful anabolic process** that consumes ATP and produces \\(\text{CO}_2\\) and \\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\\). * **\\(C_3\\) Plants:** Majority of plants. Have chloroplasts and Rubisco **only in mesophyll cells**. Run only the Calvin cycle and consume **\\(18\text{ ATP}\\)** per glucose. * **\\(C_4\\) Plants (e.g., corn, sugarcane):** * **Structural Difference:** Have chloroplasts in **both mesophyll cells and bundle-sheath cells**. * **Spatial Separation:** * **Mesophyll cells:** \\(\text{CO}_2 + \text{PEP} \rightarrow \text{Oxaloacetate } (4\text{C}) \rightarrow \text{Malate}\\) via **PEP carboxylase**. *(No Rubisco here)*. * **Bundle-sheath cells:** Malate is transported here and decarboxylated into \\(\text{CO}_2\\) and pyruvate. **Rubisco** uses this concentrated \\(\text{CO}_2\\) in the Calvin cycle (\\(C_3\\) pathway). * **Energy Cost:** Transporting each \\(\text{CO}_2\\) as malate costs \\(2\text{ ATP}\\) equivalents (\\(12\text{ ATP}\\) total for \\(6\text{ CO}_2\\)). Total energy per glucose = \\(18 + 12 =\\) **\\(30\text{ ATP}\\)**. * **\\(CAM\\) Plants (e.g., cacti, pineapples):** * **Temporal Separation:** Run both pathways in **mesophyll cells only** (where Rubisco is located). * **Night:** Stomata open at night to fix \\(\text{CO}_2\\) into malate (\\(C_4\\) pathway) and store it in central vacuoles. * **Day:** Stomata close; malate releases \\(\text{CO}_2\\) to drive the Calvin cycle (\\(C_3\\) pathway) during daylight. * **Energy Cost:** Consumes **\\(30\text{ ATP}\\)** per glucose. --- ### **6. Important Review Points for Exam 2** * **Final Electron Acceptors:** * Light-dependent reactions: **\\(\text{NADP}^+\\)** (reduced to \\(\text{NADPH}\\)). * Aerobic cellular respiration: **Oxygen (\\(\text{O}_2\\))** (reduced to \\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\\)). * Lactic acid fermentation: **Pyruvate** (reduced to lactate/lactic acid in skeletal muscles, causing muscle fatigue). * Ethanol/Alcohol fermentation: **Acetaldehyde** (reduced to ethanol, releasing \\(\text{CO}_2\\) in yeast). * Methanogens: **\\(\text{CO}_2\\)**. * **Glycolysis Energy & Enzymes:** * **Initial Phase:** Endergonic (uses \\(2\text{ ATP}\\)). * **Middle Phase:** Exergonic (produces \\(2\text{ ATP}\\) and \\(2\text{ NADH}\\); uses **kinase** and **dehydrogenase**). * **Final Phase:** Exergonic (produces \\(2\text{ ATP}\\)). * **Overall:** Exergonic (net yield of **\\(2\text{ ATP}\\)** per glucose). * **Krebs Cycle:** Exergonic; produces **\\(2\text{ ATP}\\)** per glucose via **substrate-level phosphorylation** (catalyzed by kinases). * **Isotope Labeling Experiment:** * Oxygen labeled in \\(\text{CO}_2\\) ends up in **glucose**. * Oxygen labeled in \\(\text{H}_2\text{O}\\) ends up in **oxygen gas (\\(\text{O}_2\\))**. * **Organism Interdependence:** Photoautotrophs can survive without heterotrophs, but heterotrophs cannot survive without photoautotrophs.

NADZÓR NAD ANS [A.KOSMAŁA]

na3

Arabiyyat al-Naas: Unit 11

Przyimki zmienne z biernikiem

NAA 100 Exam 1 Abbreviations

NAC Lunch

neoplasia nad tumor markers

Skills Test NAC

Q1 la frontera-nadie