Results for "Merit"

Nurture Merit Test 2017 Model Questions

Nurture Merit Test 2017 Model Questions Review

Model Questions for Nurture Merit Test 2017

Nurture Merit Test 2017 Model Questions

Nurture Merit Test Model Questions Review

BPA Merit Scholar Award

BPA Merit Scholar Award Study Guide

economics theme 1 : merit and demerit goods

tehnične meritve

texas merit scholar exam

n Mar. 30, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued its judgment on the merits in Certain Iranian Assets, nearly seven years after the case between Iran and the United States was first filed. The Court found that a number of U.S. actions constituted violations of the Treaty of Amity between Iran and the United States, but that the 2018 termination of the Treaty meant that the Court could only award monetary damages and could not order cessation of the United States’ activities.ccccc In a complex opinion touching on issues ranging from “unclean hands” to expropriation, the Court determined that it could not order the United States to unfreeze nearly $1.75 billion in Iranian central bank assets but obligated the United States to compensate Iranian companies for its sanctions and seizure of other assets. Both the United States and Iran were quick to frame the decision as a victory. The United States issued a statement calling the Court’s judgment a “major victory for the United States and victims of Iran’s State-sponsored terrorism.” Meanwhile, Iran’s Foreign Ministry said that the ICJ’s ruling proved Iran’s “righteousness and the violations by the US government.” Factual Background and Iran’s Claims Iran brought this case against the United States in 2016 claiming that the United States had violated both the 1955 Treaty of Amity between the two countries and international law norms on State immunity by permitting private litigants to proceed in suits against Iran and attaching seized Iranian assets to satisfy judgments against Iran obtained in those actions. Iran’s claims are rooted in several legislative and executive acts taken by the United States. These measures culminated in a number of default and substantial damages judgments entered by U.S. courts against Iran and Iranian State-owned entities. In 1996, the United States amended the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) to remove immunity for States designated as “State sponsors of terrorism.” The FSIA’s terrorism exception prompted many plaintiffs to commence proceedings against Iran, which the United States designated as a “State sponsor of terrorism” in 1984, for damages caused by acts allegedly supported by Iran. The Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (TRIA), enacted in 2002, permitted enforcement measures for judgements entered pursuant to the 1996 amendment to the FSIA. Importantly, Section 201 of TRIA provides that in these cases, the assets of an entity designated as a “terrorist party” shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution. As a result of President Barack Obama’s Executive Order 13599, the United States blocked all assets of the Iranian government, including those of the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi) and of other financial institutions, within U.S. jurisdiction. The United States then adopted the Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (ITRSHRA), subjecting Bank Markazi’s assets to execution to satisfy default judgments against Iran. Bank Markazi challenged ITRSHRA in Bank Markazi v. Peterson, but the Supreme Court upheld the use of nearly $1.75 billion in Central Bank of Iran assets to satisfy judgments in favor of terrorism victims under the FSIA’s terrorism exception. As a result of these executive, legislative, and judicial acts of the United States, Iran initiated proceedings before the ICJ and argued that Iran and its entities were suffering serious and ongoing harm in violation of the Treaty of Amity. Jurisdiction and Admissibility 2019 Judgment on Preliminary Objections Prior to the Mar. 30 opinion, the Court in its 2019 judgment on preliminary objections rejected the United States’ claims that it did not consent to the ICJ’s jurisdiction under the Treaty’s dispute resolution clause which conferred the Court jurisdiction over disputes arising from the Treaty. In addition to objecting the Court’s jurisdiction over the dispute, the United States filed preliminary objections to the admissibility of the case on several grounds including that Iran’s claims were beyond the scope of the Treaty and Iran’s invocation of ICJ jurisdiction, given its history of supporting international terrorism, amounted to an abuse of process. The Court unanimously dismissed United States’ admissibility objections to Iran’s claims. However, the Court determined that it lacked jurisdiction over claims that the United States violated Iran’s sovereign immunity. It also determined that a third objection on jurisdiction, over claims regarding Bank Markazi, was not of a preliminary character and saved a full decision on that objection for full development of the factual record. Jurisdiction over the Central Bank of Iran (Bank Markazi) In the Mar. 30 opinion, the Court returned to the outstanding jurisdictional question and determined that it lacked jurisdiction over Iran’s claims relating to alleged U.S. violations of the Treaty of Amity in relation to Bank Markazi. The Treaty grants benefits only to “nationals” (natural persons) and “companies.” The United States successfully argued that Bank Markazi was not a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, and therefore, Iran’s central bank was not protected by the Treaty. This jurisdictional determination was particularly significant because it covered assets of nearly $1.75 billion dollars, representing most of Iran’s overall monetary claims. In reaching its decision, the Court paid particular attention to the “nature” of Bank Markazi’s activities, rather than its legal personality separate from the Government of Iran. Iran contended that Bank Markazi’s investment of dematerialized bonds issued on the U.S. financial market and subsequent management of proceeds from those 22 securities qualified it as a “company” under the Treaty. The ICJ was unconvinced and ruled that the bank did not engage in a sufficient level of activities of a commercial character to be characterized as a “company” entitled to the Treaty’s protections. The Court ruled that Bank Markazi’s operations in the United States are “part of the usual activity of a central bank and inseparable from its sovereign function.” Failure to Exhaust Local Remedies The Court rejected the United States’ objection to admissibility based on Iran’s failure to exhaust local remedies. Under customary international law, a State that initiates an international claim on behalf of its nationals based on diplomatic protection must exhaust local remedies before the claim can be heard. This requirement is also considered satisfied when there are no local remedies providing the injured persons with a reasonable opportunity to obtain redress. In this case, the Court remarked that each time an Iranian entity sought to have federal statutory provisions set aside by U.S. courts because they were inconsistent with rights provided by the Treaty of Amity, the U.S. court routinely applied the federal law due to it being enacted after the Treaty. Because of this, the Court concluded that the Iranian entities “had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings” and rejected the United States’ challenge to admissibility based on a failure to exhaust local remedies. United States’ Defenses on the Merits The ICJ rejected three separate defenses invoked by the United States. First, it rejected the United States’ contention that Iran had committed an abuse of right by applying the Treaty of Amity to measures it considered to be unrelated to commerce. The Court next dismissed the United States’ defense that its Executive Order 13599, blocking the property of the Iranian government and related financial entities, fell into two carve outs of the Treaty: measures that regulate the production of or traffic in arms and measures that are necessary for a contracting party’s essential security interests. The Court disagreed that the Executive Order fell into either of these two exceptions. It found that the measures in the Executive Order only had an indirect impact on the production of and the traffic in arms by Iran. Additionally, the Court ruled that the Executive Order was not necessary to protect the United States’ essential security interests, noting that the justifications set out in the Executive Order itself were primarily financial rather than security considerations. Finally, the United States asked the Court to dismiss all claims brought by Iran under the Treaty of Amity on the grounds that Iran came to the Court with “unclean hands.” The Court noted it had never upheld that “clean hands” constitutes custom or general principle of law, and that it considers the doctrine with caution. The International Law Commission (ILC) in its Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts also declined to consider “unclean hands” as grounds for a preclusion of wrongfulness, noting it has “been invoked principally in the context of the admissibility of claims before international courts and tribunals, though rarely applied.” Despite its hesitancy to apply the doctrine, the Court stated that even if it were to apply “clean hands” to the case, a nexus between the wrongful conduct imputed to Iran and its claims under the Treaty of Amity would be needed. The Court determined this necessary nexus was missing and rejected the United States’ “unclean hands” defense. Having rejected these defenses, the Court then turned to the merits of Iran’s specific claims. Alleged Violations of the Treaty of Amity Art. III, para. 1 and Art. IV, para. 1 Iran and the United States disagreed on the meaning of Art. III, para. 1, of the Treaty, which provided for Iranian and American companies to “have their juridical status recognized” within the territory of each contracting party. In its 2019 judgment on preliminary objections, the ICJ understood “juridical status” as a company’s own legal personality, sometimes existing as an entity distinct from its associated State. Article IV, para. 1, provides for fair and equitable treatment and prohibits the United States and Iran from taking “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” against each other’s nationals or companies. Iran contended that the United States disregarded the legal personality of Iranian companies within its territory and that the U.S. measures under Section 201(a) of TRIA, Section 1610(g) of the FSIA, and Executive Order 13599 were unreasonable. The Court noted that a measure is unreasonable under the Treaty of Amity when it does not pursue a legitimate public purpose, there is no appropriate relationship between the purpose pursued and measure adopted, or it is manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose. Although the U.S. measures at issue might have pursued a legitimate public purpose of providing effective remedies to plaintiffs awarded damages and the attachment and execution of a liable defendant’s assets is generally an appropriate relationship with that purpose, the Court found the legislative measures to be manifestly excessive. It noted that TRIA and the FSIA employed very broad terms, capable of encompassing any legal entity regardless of the degree or type of control exercised over them by Iran. The Court ruled that the United States unjustly “lifted the corporate veil,” disregarding the separate legal personality of Iranian companies in liability judgments rendered in cases where the companies could not participate and in relation to underlying facts the companies seemed to be uninvolved in. Additionally, the Court found Executive Order 13599 to be manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose of responding to Iran’s “sustained support of terrorist acts” because it applied in an overinclusive manner to “any Iranian financial institution.” Art. III, para. 2 On Iran’s claim that the United States violated the Treaty’s guarantee of “freedom of access to the courts” and “prompt and impartial justice,” the Court found no violation committed by the United States. Although the application of law by U.S. courts was unfavorable to the Iranian companies, the ICJ noted that the rights of Iranians companies to appear before U.S. court, make legal submissions, and lodge appeals were unimpeded. Art. IV, para. 2 By seizing and attaching the assets of Iranian companies, the Court found that the United States had committed an expropriation contrary to Article IV of the Treaty. The Court only found a violation here with respect to the United States’ measures taken under TRIA and the FSIA, but not those enacted by Executive Order 13599. The Court noted that a judicial decision attaching and executing property or interests in property does not per se constitute a taking or expropriation of that property. Instead, an element of illegality is required. After examining the various legislative, executive, and judicial acts taken by the United States and at issue in this case, the Court relied on its prior finding of unreasonableness to establish that the U.S. measures had not been a lawful exercise of regulatory powers and amounted to an expropriation without compensation. However, the Court dismissed Iran’s takings claims directed at Executive Order 13599 because Iran failed to identify affected property of Iranian companies specifically impacted by the executive order beyond Bank Markazi. Because the Court denied jurisdiction over claims related to Bank Markazi, the Court did not find the United States to have committed an unlawful expropriation with Executive Order 13599. On Iran’s claims that the United States failed to afford the most constant protection and security to Iranian companies as provided by Article IV, the Court stated that the United States’ obligation under the Treaty was to protect Iranian companies’ property from actual physical harm. During the proceedings, Iran asserted that the Treaty’s obligation extended beyond protection from physical harm to legal protection of property. The Court refused to extend the protection from physical harm afforded by Article IV, para. 2, to legal harm because of the overlap with the fair and equitable treatment provision in Article IV, para. 1, that would result from accepting Iran’s interpretation. Because the Court already determined that the U.S. measures violated fair and equitable treatment under Article IV, para. 1, it rejected Iran’s claims under Article IV, para. 2. The Court reasoned that paragraph 2 of Article IV was not intended to apply to situations covered by paragraph 1 of that article. Article V, para. 1 The ICJ ruled that the United States did not deprive Iranian companies the right to dispose of their property. Iran’s allegations were predicated on the same set of facts claimed in relation to Article IV, para. 2. The Court understood measures that amount to unlawful expropriation to fall outside the scope of Article V, para. 1. Because the United States’ measures were already deemed to amount to expropriation, the Court concluded that Iran had not established a violation by the United States of the right to dispose of property. Article VII, para. 1 Under the Treaty, the United States did not improperly apply restrictions on the making of payments, remittances, and other transfers of funds. The Court rejected Iran’s interpretation of this provision as imposing a blanket prohibition on any restriction on the movement of capital. Instead, the Court understood the provision to reflect Iran and the United States’ intent to regulate exchange restrictions to preserve bilateral commerce. As Iran did not allege the United States of applying exchange restrictions, the Court dismissed Iran’s claims. Article X, para. 1 Finally, the Court found that the United States had violated its obligations to provide “freedom of commerce” for the Iranian companies. In the Court’s view, “commerce” applies to ancillary activities related to traditional forms of commerce, such as trade in goods. As a result, the Court understood financial transactions, such as trade in intangible assets, to be commerce protected by Article X of the Treaty. To find a breach under this article, the Court was convinced that the United States’ measures were actual impediments to commerce. Because it comprehensively blocked property, Executive Order 13599 qualified as an actual impediment to any financial transaction conducted by Iran or Iranian financial institutions in the United States. Additionally, the attachment and execution of assets of Iranian State-owned companies under the FSIA was also considered to be an actual impediment to the performance of commercial activities by those entities. Finally, the application of both the FSIA and TRIA by U.S. courts was also considered to be a material interference with Iranian commerce within the United States. Remedies Iran requested that the ICJ, having identified certain violations of the Treaty, order the United States to cease conduct that violated its Treaty obligations. However, the Court, citing the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, noted that it could order a cessation of internationally wrongful acts “only if the violated obligation is still in force.” In 2018, the United States had terminated the Treaty by giving Iran advance notice of its withdrawal, and so the Court determined that the relevant obligations were no longer in force and it could not grant Iran’s request for an order of cessation. Finally, on the question of compensation for injury suffered, the Court recognized that the United States is obligated to compensate Iran for the violations it committed. If Iran and the United States are unable to come to an agreement on the amount within two years, the Court will determine the amount due in a subsequent phase of the proceedings. Conclusion Institutionally, a judgment leaving both parties claiming victory is an objectively positive outcome for the ICJ. However, it is unlikely that we have seen the last of this case. Leaving the two countries to reach an agreeable amount of compensation on their own might not inspire confidence given the looming presence of the challenging dynamics between the two countries. The largest share of assets claimed back by Iran were those associated with the Central Bank of Iran. This close to $1.75 billion dollars in assets tied to Iran’s central bank towers over the rest of assets involved in Iran’s successful allegations against the United States. Financially, the United States is off the hook for a significant amount of the assets in dispute. However, unfreezing millions of dollars in assets for Iranian use remains politically sensitive for the United States as Iran advances its nuclear program and faces international criticism for its harsh response to domestic protests sparked late last year. On the other hand, for a country that has sought to convey the wrongfulness of the United States’ sanctions regime against it, Iran was handed a political victory with an international court ruling that some of the United States’ measures were unlawful. The messaging games between the two countries will only continue with the ICJ’s opinion in this case.

Theatre Merit Badge

Breeding and Selection Breeding: the mating and production of offspring by animals. The activity of controlling the mating and production of offspring of animals Selection: the act of choosing something or someone from a group Geneus species of livestock European cattle- Bos taurus Zebu Cattle- Bos Indicus Swine- Sus Scrofa Sheep- Ovis Aries Horse- Equus Cabellus Goat- Capra Hircus Dog- Canis Familaris Cat- felis catus Principles of Breeding and Genetics Phenotype: the characteristic of an animal that can be seen or measured Genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual (DNA) Phenotype= Genotype + Environment Genotype= phenotype - Envoromet Selection: differently producing what one wants in a herd. Allowing only certain mating to occur. Inheritance: transmission of genes from parents to offsprings Basic Cell Information Chromosomes: in the nucleus and contains genetic material Gene: an active area in the chromosome that codes for trait DNA: complex molecule of the chromosomes which is the coding mechanism of inheritance Gametogenesis: Process that the gonads produce cells that become gametes(ova and sperm) Spermatogenesis: production of sperm Oogenesis: production of egg or ova Meiosis- special type of nuclear division in which germ cells contain one member of each chromosomes pair Fertilization: when an egg and sperm unite from embryo Each contributes one chromosome per pair to new life Homosygous: an individual whose genes for a particular trait are identical or alike Heterozygous: individual who possesses unlike genes for particular trait Dominant: a gene that overpowers and prevents the expression of its recessive allele when the two alleles are present in a heterozygous individual Recessive: a gene that its expression is masked by dominant allele Allele: gene occupying corresponding loci on homologus chromosomes that affect the same trait What traits should one select? Only traits that contribute to productive efficiency and consumer acceptance are of economic importance Ex: reproduction, growth(pre-weaning, post weaning) Basis of Selection Appearance Genetic abnormalities Estimate carcas merit Fit standard for herd Reproduction record Individuals records Progeny testing Pedigree family Factors affecting genetic progress Selection differential Heritability Genetic interval Accuracy of records Genetic correlation Number of traits in selection program Things to remember about traits Heritability: amount of the phenotypic expression of a trait that is transmitted to offspring (enviroments have big effect) (h2) Heterosis: the tendency of a crossbred individual to show qualities superior to those of both parents Generation interval The average age of the parents when offsprings are born The shorter the generation interval, the faster the genetic interval Selection Methods Tandem Selection: Selection for one trait at a time Least effective: mattes rapid gain in a single trait, but is slow to reach selection goal involving several traits Independant culling: establishes minimum culling levels for each trait makes SLOWER gain for each trait, but reaches goals faster. Most effective when few traits are involved. Selection Index: each animal is rated numerically by combining performance of several traits into a single index New Mexico Ram Test Selection Index Index=12 + 40 (ADG) + 30(CWF) + SL - 12 (DIA) - o.5 (VAR) All variables expressed as ratio of individual to the average ADG= average daily grain CWF= clean wool fibers SL= staple length DIA= Fiber diameter VAR= difference between dide and Britch Breeding Systems Purebred breeder: develop breeding stock that pocessess the highest predictability for transmitting the most desirable inheritance possible purebred animal: meets the requiramnets of a recognized breed and whose ancestors are registered in the herd book of that breed Breed: race or variety of livestock where the members are related by descent and are similar Purebred breeders may use: Linecrossing: crossing different lines or unrelated animals of the same breed, it is also used as outcrossing for outbreeding systems. It results in an increased heterozygosity and heterosis (offspring will not breed true). Heterosis: increase in production in the offspring over average of parents. Inbreeding: mating of related individuals( sires and dams share at least one ancestor) results in a increase of homozygosisty Inbreeding coefficient: measures of how inbred an animal is( the probability two genes of a pair in an individual will be homozygous because they are replicates of a single ancestor gene Coefficient ranges from 0-1. 0=no change, 1=absolute certenity Increase inbreeding usually detrimental to: reproductive performance, pre-weaning growth, post-weaning growth, increase susceptibility to environmental stress Commercial Producers: make use of available genetic material in a manner to maximize production or give most efficient, rapid and economical prodyction possible Systems used by commercial producers Species crossing- how many result in nonfertile offsprings Crossbreeding- mating animals of different established breeds and takes advantage of complementary and heterosis(hybrid vigor) oucrossing/ linerarcrossing- mating of unrelated animals of same breed Grading up- making purebred sires to commercial grade females and their female offspring for several generations Most common species crosses Jack to mare= mule Stallion to jennet= hinny Zebu to european cattle= brangus cattle American bison to cattle= buffalo Cross breeding system- designed to maximize hybrid vigor(heterosis) and produce replacement females throught the rotation of different sire breeds Terminal Static crossbreding system Produces replacement females throught the rotation while taking advantage of producing crossbred offspring Also know as “terminal crossbreeding system” Replacament females can be purchased from or produced in separate population Composiste breeding system Combines desirable traits of two or more breeds of cattle into one package Composition must be carefully planed in order to achieve genetic merit Utilizes hybrid vigor without crossbreeding Systems of mating Determied by: type of facilities, breeding schedule, method of heat detection, genetic program, market target hand/Stud mating Purebred breeders use to control breeding Females are kept apart from the males until desire time of breeding, Horse, Rabbit and Poultry advantages prevents overse of particule sire certainity of mating and to which Sire can increase conception rate by 5-10%. Disadvantages increases labor estrus detection becomes a seven-day a week job Pen mating Males and females coexist throught the breeding seasons or year rounds Used mostly by commercial breeders advantages Minimum labor Heat detection is the responsibility of the sire disadvantages Uncertainty of mating and date of conception Uncertainty of infertile sires and of un-bred females May overwork sires Artificial Insemination referred as AI Process by which semen from male is placed into the reproduction tract of the female using mechanical means rather than by natural source advantages Decrease spreed fo disease Increase number of offspring from superior male Identifies the fertility of sire Reduces number of sires needed Allows mating of small females to larger males Genetic diversity disadvantages Requires trained level of management Increases time and supervision of the female herd for estrus detection Sire training Semen handling and special breeding facilities More costly Embryo transfer Removal of early pregnancy embryos from a genetically superior female and placement of these embryos into reproduction tract of a suitable recipient for gestation and parturition Reproduction defined: process by which animals produce offsrpings for the purpose of continuing the species. The process of reproduction begins with copulation, which is the mating of a male and female of the species Sperm cells from the male are deposited in the female reproduction tract and try to unite with an egg cell When fertilization( a sperm cell and an egg cell units) occurs, an embryo begins The embryo attaches to the wall of the uterus where it is protected, recieves nourishment, and develops When the new offspring reaches the end of the gestation period, it is delivered from the female reproductive tract in a process called parturition

4.1.8.5 Merit and Demerit goods

Merit /Demerit/Public Goods

Meritocracy’s

Lesson 20 - Passive Figure of Merit

Sociology - Meritocracy Myth Study Guide

● Unique Corporate Culture: Zappos integrates happiness and motivation into its core principles, providing exceptional benefits and maintaining a flat organizational structure to enhance employee motivation and satisfaction. Motivational Strategies: The company emphasizes personal connections in customer interactions, offers substantial training with an option to quit, and focuses on creating a fulfilling work environment, reflecting a deep commitment to employee happiness and motivation. —--------------------------------------- Overview of Early Motivation Studies: ● Early motivation studies focused on understanding how individual needs drive employees to demonstrate goal-oriented behavior in order to satisfy these needs. For instance, an employee seeking companionship might frequently engage in conversations around the office to fulfill this need. Key Theories of Motivation: 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: ○ Developed by Abraham Maslow, this theory posits that human needs are organized hierarchically from the most basic to higher-level needs. ○ Levels of Needs: ■ Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs like food and water. ■ Safety Needs: Protection from danger and stability. ■ Social Needs: Desire for relationships and belonging. ■ Esteem Needs: Need for respect, recognition, and self-esteem. ■ Self-Actualization: The pursuit of realizing one’s full potential and engaging in activities that lead to growth and fulfillment. ○ Maslow’s theory suggests that once a lower-level need is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivator, and the individual moves to satisfy higher-level needs. 2. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer): ○ This theory modifies Maslow’s hierarchy by categorizing needs into three groups: ■ Existence Needs: Corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. ■ Relatedness Needs: Links to social needs. ■ Growth Needs: Encompasses esteem and self-actualization needs. ○ ERG theory does not maintain a strict hierarchy and acknowledges that multiple needs can be motivational at the same time. It introduces the concept of “frustration-regression, ” where individuals revert to satisfying lower-level needs if they cannot satisfy higher-level ones. 3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: ○ Frederick Herzberg identified two sets of factors that impact motivation: ■ Hygiene Factors: Elements like company policies, salary, and working conditions, which can cause dissatisfaction if not addressed. ■ Motivators: Factors intrinsic to the job such as achievement, recognition, and growth opportunities, which truly motivate employees to perform better. ○ Herzberg argued that improving hygiene factors alone does not increase job satisfaction; instead, motivators are crucial for enhancing employee motivation. 4. McClelland’s Acquired-Needs Theory: ○ David McClelland proposed that individuals develop certain needs based on their life experiences, which are: ■ Need for Achievement: Desire to excel and achieve in relation to a set of standards. ■ Need for Affiliation: Desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. ■ Need for Power: Desire to make an impact, influence others, and have authority. ○ The dominant need influences an individual’s behavior at work and their suitability for certain roles. For example, high achievement needs are effective in roles with clear performance metrics, while high affiliation needs are beneficial in cooperative roles. Applications and Implications: ● ● Understanding these needs and theories helps managers create work environments that satisfy employee needs, thus motivating them effectively. The theories emphasize the importance of recognizing the diversity of employee needs and tailoring motivational approaches accordingly. Critiques and Limitations: ● ● While these theories have been influential, they also face criticisms such as the rigidity of need hierarchy (Maslow) and the oversimplification of motivational factors (Herzberg). Despite criticisms, these theories provide valuable frameworks for understanding employee motivation and designing effective management practices. Here’s a detailed summary of the process-based theories of motivation, as outlined in your text: Overview of Process-Based Theories of Motivation: ● Process-based theories view motivation as a rational process where individuals analyze their environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react accordingly. This perspective focuses on understanding the cognitive processes that underpin motivated behavior. Equity Theory (Adams, 1965): ● ● ● ● ● Core Concept: People are motivated by fairness, which they assess through social comparisons of input-outcome ratios with others (referents). Inputs and Outcomes: Inputs are contributions (e.g., effort, skill), while outcomes are what people receive in return (e.g., pay, recognition). Perceptions of Equity: Fairness is perceived when one’s ratio of input to outcome matches that of their referent. Responses to Inequity: Responses can include altering perceptions, changing the input level, adjusting outcomes, or even leaving the situation. Overpayment and Underpayment: Reactions differ based on whether individuals feel over-rewarded or under-rewarded, influencing their motivation and actions. Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964; Porter & Lawler, 1968): ● ● Core Concept: Motivation is determined by an individual’s rational calculation of expectancy (effort will lead to performance), instrumentality (performance will lead to outcomes), and valence (value of the outcomes). Application: This theory is useful for understanding how beliefs about the relationships between effort, performance, and rewards motivate people to act in certain ways. Reinforcement Theory: ● ● ● Core Concept: Behavior is shaped by its consequences, either reinforcing desired behaviors or discouraging undesired ones. Types of Reinforcement: ○ Positive Reinforcement: Increases desirable behavior by offering positive outcomes. ○ Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by removing negative conditions. ○ Punishment: Decreases undesired behavior through negative consequences. ○ Extinction: Reduces behavior by removing rewards. Reinforcement Schedules: Different schedules (continuous, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio) affect the durability and quality of behavior changes. Procedural and Interactional Justice: ● Beyond distributive justice (fairness of outcomes), procedural (fairness of processes used to determine outcomes) and interactional justice (treatment of individuals in the enactment of procedures) are crucial in shaping perceptions of fairness and, consequently, motivation. OB Toolbox for Fairness: ● Recommendations include recognizing diverse contributions, ensuring fairness in decision-making, treating people with respect, and maintaining transparency in rules and decisions. Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod): ● A systematic application of reinforcement theory in organizations to modify employee behaviors. It involves identifying behaviors, measuring baseline levels, analyzing antecedents and consequences, implementing interventions, and evaluating outcomes. Key Success Factors: 1. 2. 3. Employee Empowerment: Employees at Nucor are treated as company owners, empowered to make decisions and take actions that affect their work and the company’s operations directly. Decentralized Structure: Authority and responsibility are pushed down to lower levels, allowing line workers to undertake tasks typically reserved for management. Innovative Reward System: Nucor’s compensation strategy includes high base wages, significant annual bonuses, and profit sharing, with a strong link to company and individual performance. Modern Approaches to Job Design: ● ● ● Job Rotation: This involves periodically shifting employees to different tasks to alleviate monotony and enhance skills. Job Enlargement: Expands job tasks to add variety and increase employee engagement and satisfaction. Job Enrichment: Provides more autonomy over how tasks are performed, increasing responsibility and potentially improving job satisfaction and productivity. Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1975): Identifies five core job dimensions that impact three critical psychological states, influencing job outcomes: 1. Skill Variety 2. Task Identity 3. Task Significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback These dimensions contribute to feelings of meaningfulness, responsibility, and understanding of results, leading to high internal work motivation, job satisfaction, and reduced absenteeism. Empowerment: ● Extends the concept of autonomy by removing barriers that limit the potential of ● ● employees. Structurally empowered employees, who are provided with information, resources, and support to make decisions, tend to have higher job satisfaction and performance. Effective empowerment also requires a supportive management and organizational culture that genuinely delegates decision-making power to employees. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Goal Setting Goal-Setting Theory: Goal-setting is a powerful method of motivation, supported by extensive research showing that effectively set goals can enhance employee performance significantly. This approach has been broadly adopted across various sectors, including major corporations globally. SMART Goals: Effective goals are SMART—Specific, Measurable, Aggressive, Realistic, and Time-bound: ● ● ● Specific and Measurable: Goals should be clear and quantifiable to ensure performance can be evaluated accurately. Aggressive: Goals should be challenging to stimulate higher performance. Realistic: While goals should be ambitious, they must also be achievable to maintain motivation. ● Time-Bound: A clear timeline increases urgency and helps focus efforts. Why SMART Goals Motivate: Goals clarify the direction and energize employees towards achieving specific outcomes. They also encourage innovative thinking to meet challenging targets and create a sense of accomplishment upon achieving these goals. Conditions for Effective Goals: ● ● ● Feedback: Regular feedback helps align employee's efforts with their goals. Ability: Employees need the requisite skills and knowledge to achieve their goals. Goal Commitment: Commitment to goals is crucial for their effectiveness, which can be enhanced by involving employees in the goal-setting process and ensuring the goals align with their values and capabilities. Potential Downsides of Goal Setting: ● ● Goals can reduce adaptability to changing circumstances if too rigid. Overemphasis on specific goals can lead to neglect of other important duties or unethical behavior to achieve targets. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Performance Appraisals Overview: Performance appraisals are a formal process used by organizations to assess and provide feedback on employee performance. These appraisals are crucial for employee motivation, informing decisions on rewards, promotions, and terminations. Key Features of Effective Appraisals: Effective appraisals are characterized by: ● ● ● Adequate Notice: Employees are informed about the criteria ahead of time. Fair Hearing: Appraisals include two-way communication. Evidence-Based Judgment: Decisions are based on documented performance evidence. When properly managed, performance appraisals are valuable tools for motivating employees, enhancing their development, and aligning their goals with organizational objectives. Effective appraisals require clear criteria, fair processes, and regular feedback to truly benefit both employees and the organization. Summary: Motivating Employees Through Performance Incentives Incentive Systems Overview: Incentive systems link employee pay to performance, either on an individual or company-wide basis. Common in many organizations, these systems are designed to implement motivation theories practically, aiming to boost productivity, profits, and employee commitment through various forms of financial rewards. Types of Incentives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Piece Rate Systems: Compensation is based on the quantity of output produced. Effective in environments where output is easily measurable. Individual Bonuses: One-time rewards for achieving specific goals, enhancing motivation by providing clear, achievable targets. Merit Pay: Ongoing pay raises based on past performance, typically determined through performance appraisals. Can lead to a sense of entitlement if not carefully managed. Sales Commissions: Compensation linked to the volume or profitability of sales. Needs careful structuring to align with company goals and encourage desirable behaviors. Team Bonuses: Rewards based on team performance, suitable in environments where teamwork and collective performance are critical. Gainsharing: Rewards employees for performance improvements over previous periods, typically through cost savings or efficiency gains, fostering a culture of continuous improvement. Profit Sharing: Distributes a portion of company profits among employees, fostering loyalty and a sense of ownership among staff. Stock Options: Provides employees the option to buy company stock at a future date at a predetermined price, aligning employee interests with those of the company. Effectiveness and Challenges: While financial incentives can be powerful motivators, they also have potential downsides such as promoting risk-averse behavior and diminishing creativity. Incentives may also lead employees to focus narrowly on rewarded behaviors, potentially at the expense of other important duties or organizational citizenship behaviors. Key Considerations for Effective Incentives: ● ● ● Incentives should be clearly aligned with organizational goals and strategies. The structure of incentives should balance between encouraging desired behaviors and allowing flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances. Companies should be aware of the potential for incentives to encourage unethical behavior or excessive risk-taking. Conclusion: Properly designed and implemented, performance incentives can significantly enhance motivation and performance. However, they require careful management to ensure they support broader organizational objectives and promote a healthy, collaborative, and innovative work culture. Overview of Trait Approaches: Early leadership studies focused on identifying traits that distinguish leaders from non-leaders, exploring various personality characteristics and physical attributes. Although initially deemed inconclusive, modern research, particularly with the advent of the Big Five personality framework, has successfully linked certain traits with leadership capabilities. Key Leadership Traits: 1. Intelligence: Both general mental ability (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ) are associated with leadership emergence and effectiveness. EQ's role becomes critical in managing oneself and interpersonal relationships effectively. 2. Big Five Personality Traits: ○ Extraversion: Strongly correlated with leadership emergence and effectiveness; extraverts' sociability and assertiveness make them visible leader candidates. ○ Conscientiousness: Organized and persistent traits contribute to leadership emergence and effectiveness. ○ Openness to Experience: Creativity and openness to new experiences are linked to innovative leadership. 3. Self-Esteem: High self-esteem enhances an individual's self-confidence and leadership perception. 4. Integrity: Honesty and moral integrity are crucial for leaders to maintain trustworthiness and ethical standards. Limitations of Trait Approaches: Trait approaches initially failed to consider situational contexts which can significantly influence leadership effectiveness. The recognition of this limitation led to a more nuanced understanding that the effectiveness of certain traits may depend heavily on specific organizational contexts or scenarios. Application in Modern Leadership: Understanding the impact of these traits helps in selecting and developing effective leaders. It’s recognized that the relevance of specific traits can vary, depending on the organizational context and the specific demands of the leadership role. Conclusion: Trait theories have evolved to highlight the importance of both identifying essential leadership traits and understanding the situational factors that influence the effectiveness of these traits in various leadership contexts. This dual focus aids in the more targeted development and placement of leaders within organizations. Leader Decision Making: Leaders use various decision-making styles, which include: 1. 2. Authoritarian: The leader makes decisions unilaterally. Democratic: Employees participate in the decision-making process. 3. Laissez-Faire: The leader provides minimal guidance and allows employees to make decisions independently. The effectiveness of these styles varies based on the organizational context and the specific situation, with democratic styles generally increasing employee satisfaction but not necessarily impacting productivity significantly. Laissez-faire leadership is often negatively associated with employee satisfaction and effectiveness. Leadership Assumptions about Human Nature: Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y outline two opposing perceptions of employee motivation: ● Theory X: Assumes employees are inherently lazy and require strict supervision and ● control. Theory Y: Views employees as self-motivated and responsive to tasks that are satisfying and fulfilling. Leaders' assumptions about human nature can influence their management style, with Theory Y leaders tending to be more supportive and empowering. Limitations of Behavioral Approaches: Behavioral approaches to leadership are criticized for their failure to consider the context in which leadership occurs. What works in one organizational setting might not work in another, indicating the necessity for leaders to adapt their behaviors to the specific demands and culture of their organization. Key Takeaway: Behavioral approaches highlight the importance of leaders’ actions and their decision-making styles in influencing their effectiveness and the satisfaction of their teams. These approaches also underscore the need for adaptability in leadership practices, reflecting the varying needs of different organizational environments. ● ● ● ● ● Contingency Leadership Context: Leadership effectiveness varies with the situation; no single style is universally effective. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory: Categorizes leaders as task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Effectiveness depends on the match between a leader's style and situational favorableness, influenced by leader-member relations, task structure, and leader's power. Situational Leadership Theory (SLT): Proposes adjusting leadership style based on follower readiness, combining directive and supportive behaviors to meet follower development needs. Path-Goal Theory: Based on expectancy theory of motivation, leaders facilitate employee paths to goals by adjusting their behaviors (directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented) to fit employee and task characteristics. Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Decision Model: Guides leaders on the level of employee involvement in decision-making based on several situational variables, offering a range from autocratic to delegative styles. ● Overall Insight: Contingency theories emphasize adapting leadership styles to the context, follower characteristics, and specific organizational circumstances for optimal leadership effectiveness. Here’s a summarized version in bullet points: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership: ○ Transformational leaders align employee goals with their own, focusing on the company's well-being. ○ Transactional leaders manage through clear structures and rewards for performance. Tools of Transformational Leaders: ○ Charisma: Inspire and garner admiration from followers. ○ Inspirational Motivation: Provide a compelling vision of the future. ○ Intellectual Stimulation: Encourage innovation and creativity. ○ Individualized Consideration: Offer personal attention and mentorship. Transactional Leadership Methods: ○ Contingent Rewards: Provide tangible rewards for tasks completed. ○ Active Management by Exception: Proactively prevent problems. ○ Passive Management by Exception: Intervene only when standards are not met. Effectiveness: ○ Transformational leadership is often more effective, enhancing motivation, performance, and satisfaction. ○ Transactional styles also show effectiveness, particularly when excluding passive management by exception. Trust and Leadership: ○ Transformational leaders are likely to be trusted more because they show concern for followers and communicate values effectively. Can Charisma Be Trained?: ○ Charisma isn't solely innate; it can be developed despite being somewhat influenced by personality traits like extraversion and neuroticism. Dark Side of Charisma: ○ Charisma can lead to blind allegiance, potentially harming organizations if not accompanied by other solid leadership qualities. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory: ○ Focuses on the type of relationship leaders form with individual members. ○ High-quality LMX relationships result in mutual trust, respect, and obligation. ○ Benefits include greater job satisfaction, performance, and organizational commitment. Developing High-Quality LMX: ○ Leaders can foster high-quality exchanges by being fair, dignified, and trusting. ○ Employees can enhance relationships through seeking feedback, being open to learning, and showing initiative. These points outline the core elements of contemporary approaches to leadership, emphasizing the situational effectiveness of different leadership styles and the importance of leader-member relationships. Week 5: Motivation Instructor: Dr. Kevin Leung Key Concepts: 1. What is Motivation? ○ Definition: A set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an individual, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence. 2. Components of Motivation: ○ Direction: Focuses on the goals towards which effort is directed. ○ Intensity: Measures how hard a person tries. ○ Persistence: Examines how long a person can maintain effort. 3. Theoretical Perspectives in Studying Motivation: ○ Need Theories: What motivates people through understanding their needs. ○ Process Theories: How motivation occurs through interactions within the environment. 4. Need Theories: ○ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Sequential needs from physiological to self-actualization. ○ Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Simplifies Maslow’s into three core needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. ○ Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Distinguishes between Motivators (satisfaction) and Hygiene factors (dissatisfaction). ○ McClelland’s Theory of Social Motives: Focuses on Achievement, Power, and Affiliation. 5. Process Theories: ○ Behavioral Theories: Emphasizes the role of reinforcement. ○ Cognitive Choice Theories: Centers on decision-making processes like Expectancy Theory. ○ Self-Regulation Theories: Includes Goal Setting Theory advocating for SMART goals. Need Theories: ● ● Understand the basic needs outlined in Maslow’s Hierarchy (from physiological needs at the base to self-actualization at the top) and how each level motivates behavior. Recognize that only unsatisfied needs motivate. Alderfer’s ERG Theory condenses Maslow’s into three groups: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth, which can be pursued simultaneously and can regress based on frustration. ● ● Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory differentiates between Hygiene factors (which prevent dissatisfaction but don't motivate) and Motivators (which truly drive employees to perform better). McClelland’s Theory focuses on the needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power. Unlike Maslow’s, these needs are not in any order and can vary in intensity between individuals. Process Theories: ● Expectancy Theory: Effort leads to performance (Expectancy), performance leads to outcomes (Instrumentality), and outcomes are valued (Valence). Understanding the connections between these elements helps predict employee motivation to engage in a behavior. Goal Setting Theory: ● Goals must be SMART—specific enough to clarify what is expected, measurable to gauge progress, achievable yet challenging, relevant to the individual’s role, and time-bound with a deadline. Goals effectively direct attention, mobilize effort, enhance persistence, and promote the development of strategies and action plans. Week 6: Leadership Instructor: Dr. Kevin Leung Key Concepts: 1. Introduction to Leadership: ○ Definition: The process of influencing others towards the achievement of goals. 2. Theoretical Perspectives on Leadership: ○ Trait Approach: Identifies personality traits that distinguish leaders. ○ Behavioral Approach: Observes behaviors that are effective for leadership. 3. Contingency Theories: ○ Fiedler’s Contingency Model: Matches leader’s style with the situation to optimize effectiveness. ○ House’s Path-Goal Theory: Adjusts leadership behavior to employee and environmental needs. 4. Contemporary Approaches to Leadership: ○ Transformational Leadership: Focuses on visionary, inspiring, and change-inducing behaviors. ○ Transactional Leadership: Relies on exchanges and rewards to influence employee behaviors. 5. Charismatic and Servant Leadership: ○ ○ Charismatic Leadership: Relies on the leader’s magnetic personality to influence and inspire followers. Servant Leadership: Prioritizes the needs of others and aims to serve rather than lead in the traditional sense. Info for Quiz Preparation: ● ● ● ● Motivation Lecture: Understand the specific components of each theory, particularly how they explain the direction, intensity, and persistence of motivation. Leadership Lecture: Be able to distinguish between different leadership styles and theories, especially noting how transformational leaders differ from transactional ones and the specific conditions under which each leadership style might be most effective according to contingency theories. Expectancy Theory in Process Theories: Focus on how expectancy (effort leads to performance), instrumentality (performance leads to outcomes), and valence (value of the outcomes) interact to motivate behavior. Goal Setting Theory: Understand how setting SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) goals can directly influence motivation and performance, supporting with examples if possible. These notes are organized to aid in understanding complex psychological theories by breaking them down into their core components, crucial for preparing for quizzes that may test comprehension and application of these concepts. ● ● ● Differences between Transformational and Transactional Leadership: ○ Transformational Leaders: Inspire and motivate employees to exceed normal levels of performance through charismatic leadership styles, visionary, and stimulating approaches. They focus on changing existing perceptions and motivating followers to put group or organizational interests first. ○ Transactional Leaders: Focus on maintaining the normal flow of operations using a system of rewards and penalties. They are practical and traditional, ensuring that staff follow procedures and perform their designated tasks. ○ Effective Conditions: Transformational leadership is effective in dynamic and competitive environments that require innovation and change. Transactional leadership works well in stable environments where tasks are routine, and the primary goal is efficiency. Expectancy Theory in Process Theories: ○ Dive deeper into how employees weigh the perceived costs and benefits of making an effort. An employee's motivation to perform is increased if they believe that their effort will lead to good performance (Expectancy), that good performance will be rewarded (Instrumentality), and that they will find the reward satisfactory (Valence). Goal Setting Theory: ● ● ○ Specific goals increase performance; difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals; feedback enhances the effect of specific and difficult goals. This is because specific and challenging goals focus attention and foster a persistent effort, leading to the development of effective strategies. Additional Insights For Expectancy Theory, prepare to apply scenarios where employees might perceive high or low expectancy, instrumentality, and valence, and predict their motivation outcomes

8.5 - Merit and demerit goods