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case study- non experimental self report bias- reporting yourself inaccurately percentile rank - percentage of scores that are less than a given score epigenetics- they study of if a gene has been expressed or not CNS- brain and spinal chord PNS- sensory and motor neurons sympathetic nervous system- fight or flight parasympathetic- calms the body somatic- controls the body autonomic - automatic movement like the hear glial cells- help with memory and learning reuptake - reabsorption ACH- movement dopamine- reward serotonin- mood norepinephrine - alertness GABA- inhibitory transmitter calm endorphins- pain EEG- electrical waves MEG- magnetic waves to see electrical activity CT-photos to see structure PET- radioactive brain activity MRI- magnetic waves to see soft tissue fMRI-structure and activity thalamus- sensory hypothalamus- drinking,eating,moving medulla- breathing brain stem- homeostasis cerebellum -balance and sensory REM- eye movement and dreams absolute threshold- minimum stimulus needed signal detection- when we detect a stimulus transduction- senses into neural impulses bottom up- processing beginning with sensory top down- constructing an image based on precious knowledge rods-perifreal cones-color kinesthesis- movement sense convergent thinking- narrowing down divergent- many ideas assimilation- adding new experiences to schemas heuristic- shortcut availability heuristic- likelihood of events based on memory (plane more dangerous than car) representative heuristic- likelihood based on how weak it matches the prototype anterograde amneasia- cant form new memories retrograde- cant remember past Proactive interference- old blocks new Retroactive interference -new blocks old preoperational- use language not comprehend concrete operational- thinking logically formal operational- think about abstract cognitive- learning negative reinforcement- removing something annoying positive reinforcement- increasing something with good response variable ratio- whenever fixed- fixed

Modern Civilizations — Semester 2 Exam Study Guide Exam Date: May 22 Format: Bubble Sheet Questions: 123 total • 50 Vocabulary/Matching • 50 Multiple Choice • 16 Map Skills • 7 Document-Based Questions ⸻ SECTION A — GEOGRAPHY SKILLS Key Vocabulary Cardinal Directions • North • South • East • West Shown on a compass rose. Intermediate Directions • Northeast • Northwest • Southeast • Southwest Latitude Imaginary lines that run east-west and measure distance north or south of the Equator. Longitude Imaginary lines that run north-south and measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian. Projection A flat map representation of Earth. Scale Shows distance on a map. Distortion When map shapes, sizes, or distances are changed because Earth is round. ⸻ 5 Themes of Geography 1. Location Where a place is. 2. Place What a place is like. 3. Movement How people, goods, and ideas move. 4. Region An area with common features. 5. Human-Environment Interaction How people affect and adapt to the environment. ⸻ Continents & Oceans 7 Continents • North America • South America • Europe • Asia • Africa • Australia • Antarctica 5 Oceans • Pacific • Atlantic • Indian • Arctic • Southern ⸻ CHAPTER 23 — SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION & AGE OF EXPLORATION Section 1 — Scientific Revolution Key Vocabulary Geocentric Theory Earth is the center of the universe. Heliocentric Theory The sun is the center of the solar system. Elliptical Oval-shaped planetary orbits. Scientific Method Organized process of observation, testing, and experimentation. Scientific Rationalism Using reason and logic to understand the world. ⸻ Important People Galileo Galilei Used a telescope to support heliocentric theory. Isaac Newton Developed laws of motion and gravity. Nicolaus Copernicus Proposed heliocentric theory. René Descartes Believed truth comes through reason. Robert Hooke Studied cells using microscopes. Sir Francis Bacon Promoted experimentation and observation. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Educational ideas Muslim scholars adopted from India • Mathematics • Astronomy • Number system (including zero) How were cells discovered? Scientists used microscopes to observe tiny living structures. Who led the study of cells? Robert Hooke ⸻ Section 2 — The Age of Exploration Key Vocabulary Caravel Fast, maneuverable sailing ship used by explorers. Colony Land controlled by another country. Exploit To use resources for benefit or profit. Quinine Medicine used against malaria. Rivalry Competition between nations. Smallpox Deadly disease spread to Native Americans. ⸻ Important People & Places Christopher Columbus Sailed for Spain and reached the Americas in 1492. Columbian Exchange Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas. Dutch East India Company Controlled trade in Asia. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile Sponsored Columbus’s voyage. Prince Henry the Navigator Encouraged Portuguese exploration. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who was Prince Henry the Navigator? A Portuguese prince who funded exploration schools, maps, and voyages. Why was the Caravel important? • Faster ship • Easier to steer • Could sail against the wind • Allowed longer ocean voyages ⸻ Section 3 — European Empires Key Vocabulary Conquistador Spanish conqueror in the Americas. Plantation Large farm using forced labor. Racism Belief that one race is superior. Triangular Trade Trade route connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Middle Passage Brutal voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas. ⸻ Important People & Places Atahualpa Last Inca emperor defeated by Spain. Francisco Pizarro Conquered the Inca Empire. Hernán Cortés Conquered the Aztec Empire. Pedro Álvares Cabral Claimed Brazil for Portugal. Tenochtitlan Capital of the Aztec Empire. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Describe the invasion of Mexico • Hernán Cortés led Spanish conquistadors. • The Aztecs were led by Montezuma. • Spanish had guns, horses, steel weapons, and Native allies. • Smallpox weakened the Aztecs. Conditions of the Middle Passage • Crowded ships • Disease • Starvation • Abuse and death Achievements of Portugal • Explored African coast • Opened sea routes to Asia • Built trading empire ⸻ CHAPTER 24 — ENLIGHTENMENT & REVOLUTIONS Section 1 — The Age of Reason Key Vocabulary Absolute Monarch King or queen with total power. Divine Right Belief that rulers receive power from God. Natural Rights Basic rights all people are born with. Enlightened Despot Ruler who accepted Enlightenment ideas. Laissez-faire Government should not interfere in economy. Free Enterprise Businesses operate with little government control. Philosophe French Enlightenment thinker. ⸻ Important People John Locke Believed people have natural rights. Montesquieu Supported separation of powers. Voltaire Supported freedom of speech and religion. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Believed government should follow the will of the people. Mary Wollstonecraft Supported women’s rights and education. Adam Smith Wrote about free-market economics. Louis XIV Example of an absolute monarch. Catherine the Great Enlightened despot of Russia. Frederick the Great Enlightened ruler. Joseph II Made reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What group applied science ideas to government? The philosophes. Why did philosophes think justice systems were unfair? Punishments were cruel and laws treated social classes unequally. ⸻ Section 2 — Revolutions on Three Continents Key Vocabulary Bourgeoisie Middle class. Jacobins Radical French Revolution group. Declaration of Independence American colonies’ statement of freedom from Britain. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen French document declaring equality and rights. ⸻ Important People Thomas Jefferson Main writer of the Declaration of Independence. Louis XVI French king executed during the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte Rose to power after the French Revolution. Simón Bolívar Helped liberate Venezuela and other nations. José de San Martín Helped free South American countries from Spain. Toussaint Louverture Led Haitian independence movement. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Who fought for Venezuela’s independence? Simón Bolívar Why were the Articles of Confederation replaced? The national government was too weak. ⸻ CHAPTER 25 — INDUSTRIALIZATION, NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM Section 1 — Industrial Revolution Key Vocabulary Industrialize Develop factories and machines. Urbanization Growth of cities. Labor Union Workers organized for better conditions. Push-Pull Factor Reasons people leave or move to places. Socialism Government control of economy to help society. Communism Classless society where property is shared. Woman Suffrage Women’s right to vote. ⸻ Important People Eli Whitney Invented the cotton gin. Karl Marx Created communist ideas. Ellis Island Main immigration station in the U.S. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Three ways Industrial Revolution changed society • More factories • Urbanization • Faster transportation • More goods produced • Growth of middle class Push factors affecting immigration • Poverty • Famine • War • Lack of jobs ⸻ Section 2 — Nationalism Around the World Key Vocabulary Nationalism Strong pride and loyalty to one’s nation. Nation-State Country with one national identity. Militarism Building up armed forces. Republic Government where citizens elect leaders. Dictator Leader with total control. ⸻ Important People Otto von Bismarck Unified Germany under Prussian leadership. Giuseppe Garibaldi Helped unify Italy. Meiji Emperor Led modernization of Japan. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Problems after Latin American independence • Political instability • Weak economies • Dictatorships • Social inequality Who unified Germany? Otto von Bismarck How did the Meiji Restoration transform Japan? • Modern industry • Modern military • Western education and technology ⸻ Section 3 — The New Imperialism Key Vocabulary Imperialism Strong nations taking control of weaker regions. Direct Rule Foreign country controls government directly. Missionary Person spreading religion. Sepoy Indian soldier serving Britain. Raj British rule in India. ⸻ Important Places & Events Berlin Conference European nations divided Africa. East India Company Controlled trade and territory in India. French Indochina French-controlled region in Asia. ⸻ CHAPTER 26 — WORLD AT WAR Section 1 — World at War Key Vocabulary Alliance Agreement between countries for support. Stalemate No side can win. Trench Warfare Fighting from dug trenches. U-boat German submarine. Bolsheviks Russian revolutionary communist group. Treaty of Versailles Treaty ending WWI. Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Triple Entente Britain, France, Russia. League of Nations International peace organization after WWI. ⸻ Important People Vladimir Lenin Leader of Bolsheviks. Karl Marx Inspired communist beliefs. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts What triggered WWI? Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Immediate effect of WWI on Russia Economic hardship and revolution. Why was WWI a total war? Entire economies and civilians supported the war effort. How did Bolsheviks change Russia’s war policy? Russia withdrew from WWI. Trench warfare resulted from what technology? Machine guns and modern artillery. ⸻ Section 2 — Between the Wars Key Vocabulary Fascism Dictatorship emphasizing nationalism and obedience. Propaganda Biased information used to influence people. Reparations Payments for war damages. Totalitarian Government with total control. Inflation Rising prices and weaker money value. ⸻ Important People Adolf Hitler Leader of Nazi Germany. Benito Mussolini Leader of Fascist Italy. Franklin D. Roosevelt Led U.S. during Great Depression and WWII. Joseph Stalin Communist dictator of USSR. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Conditions caused by Great Depression • Unemployment • Poverty • Bank failures • Economic collapse What kind of dictatorships did Hitler and Mussolini create? Fascist dictatorships. ⸻ Section 3 — World War II Key Vocabulary Appeasement Giving in to avoid conflict. Blitzkrieg “Lightning war” using fast attacks. Genocide Deliberate killing of a people group. Holocaust Murder of six million Jews during WWII. Ration Limit supplies during wartime. Atomic Bomb Extremely powerful nuclear weapon. ⸻ Important Places & People Pearl Harbor Japanese attack brought U.S. into WWII. Hiroshima First atomic bomb dropped. Nagasaki Second atomic bomb dropped. Winston Churchill Led Britain during WWII. ⸻ Comprehension & Concepts Which event broke German defenses in the west? D-Day invasion (Normandy invasion)

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Topic: The Cardiovascular System Main Functions * Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products * Helps regulate body temperature * Maintains homeostasis * Protects against infection through white blood cells ⸻ Heart Anatomy Chambers of the Heart 1. Right Atrium * Receives deoxygenated blood from the body 2. Right Ventricle * Pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery 3. Left Atrium * Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs 4

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IKT218 prøveeksamen handler i stor grad om hvordan operativsystemer fungerer, hvordan x86-arkitekturen er bygget opp, hvordan minne styres, hvordan interrupts fungerer, og hvordan sentrale systemkomponenter som GDT, IDT, PIC og PIT brukes. For å forstå eksamen godt må man først forstå de grunnleggende byggesteinene. Et operativsystem er hovedprogrammet som styrer hele datamaskinen. Det fungerer som mellomledd mellom brukerprogrammer og maskinvaren. Programmer som Chrome, Spotify eller et tekstredigeringsprogram kommuniserer vanligvis ikke direkte med CPU, RAM eller harddisk. I stedet bruker de operativsystemet, som organiserer ressurser, fordeler prosessortid, styrer minne, håndterer filer og kommuniserer med hardware via drivere. Operativsystemets viktigste rolle er altså å styre systemets ressurser på en sikker og organisert måte. Når et program kjører, kalles det en prosess. En prosess er altså et aktivt program i kjørende tilstand. Hvis et program bare ligger lagret på harddisken, er det bare en fil, men når det åpnes og bruker systemressurser, blir det en prosess. Hver prosess får sitt eget minneområde og sine egne ressurser, slik at prosesser holdes adskilt fra hverandre. Dette gjør systemet mer stabilt, fordi ett program normalt ikke skal kunne ødelegge et annet. Multitasking betyr at operativsystemet kan håndtere flere prosesser samtidig. Hvis man for eksempel har både nettleser, musikkprogram og kodeeditor åpne samtidig, håndterer operativsystemet flere prosesser parallelt ved å bytte raskt mellom dem. Multithreading betyr derimot at én enkelt prosess kan ha flere tråder, altså flere arbeidsoppgaver, som kjører samtidig innenfor samme program. For eksempel kan en nettleser ha én tråd som spiller video, én som håndterer lyd og én som registrerer tastaturinput. System calls er en sentral del av operativsystemet. System calls er grensesnittet mellom brukerprogrammer og operativsystemet. Når et program ønsker å lese en fil, skrive til disk eller bruke hardware, må det be operativsystemet om dette gjennom system calls. Dette gir sikkerhet og kontroll fordi programmer ikke får fri direkte tilgang til hele maskinen. Device drivers, eller enhetsdrivere, er programvare som lar operativsystemet kommunisere med hardware. Uten drivere ville ikke operativsystemet forstå hvordan det skal snakke med tastatur, skjerm, harddisk eller andre enheter. Driveren fungerer som en oversetter mellom operativsystemet og den fysiske enheten. Minnehåndtering er også et hovedtema. Operativsystemet må fordele minne til programmer, beskytte minnet og bruke det effektivt. Dette gjøres blant annet gjennom paging, segmentation og virtual memory. Paging deler minnet inn i sider, segmentation deler det inn i segmenter med regler og grenser, mens virtual memory lar programmer bruke virtuelle adresser som operativsystemet oversetter til faktiske fysiske adresser i RAM. Virtual memory gir bedre sikkerhet, bedre organisering og gjør at systemet kan håndtere minne mer fleksibelt. I x86-arkitektur starter systemet i real mode. Real mode er en enkel 16-bits modus med direkte tilgang til fysisk minne og lite beskyttelse. Dette brukes typisk under oppstart. Protected mode er mer avansert og brukes i moderne systemer. Protected mode gir 32-bits funksjonalitet, minnebeskyttelse, virtual memory og tilgangskontroll. Overgangen fra real mode til protected mode er en viktig del av systemoppstart og OS-utvikling. CPU-en bruker registers, som er små og svært raske lagringsplasser inni prosessoren. General-purpose registers som EAX, EBX, ECX og EDX brukes til generell databehandling. Segment registers som CS, DS og SS brukes til segmentering, mens control registers som CR0 og CR3 brukes til kontroll av CPU-modus og minnestyring. For eksempel brukes CR0 til å aktivere protected mode. GDT, eller Global Descriptor Table, er en systemomfattende tabell som beskriver minnesegmenter. Den inneholder informasjon som base address, limit, access rights og granularity. GDT brukes for å definere hvordan minneområder skal brukes og beskyttes. LDT, eller Local Descriptor Table, fungerer lignende, men er knyttet til én spesifikk oppgave eller prosess. IDT, eller Interrupt Descriptor Table, brukes derimot til interrupts. IDT forteller CPU-en hvilken kode som skal kjøres når et interrupt eller en exception oppstår. Interrupts er signaler som forteller CPU-en at noe krever oppmerksomhet. Hardware interrupts kommer fra hardware, som tastatur eller mus. Software interrupts kommer fra programmer. IRQ, Interrupt Request, er selve forespørselen fra hardware. Når et tastatur registrerer et tastetrykk, sendes for eksempel en IRQ. ISR, Interrupt Service Routine, er koden som faktisk kjøres som respons på interruptet. PIC, Programmable Interrupt Controller, håndterer og prioriterer interrupts fra flere hardware-enheter før de sendes videre til CPU-en. Dette gjør at systemet kan organisere hvilke interrupts som skal behandles først. PIT, Programmable Interval Timer, er systemets timer. PIT genererer periodiske interrupts som brukes til klokke, timing og task scheduling. Dette er avgjørende for at operativsystemet skal kunne holde styr på tid og fordele CPU-tid mellom oppgaver. Når det gjelder minne i programmering, er stack og heap sentrale begreper. Stack brukes hovedsakelig til lokale variabler og funksjonskall, og styres automatisk. Heap brukes til dynamisk minneallokering, som malloc og calloc i C, og må styres mer manuelt. Hvis et program allokerer minne på heapen, men ikke frigjør det, kan det oppstå memory leaks. Compiler og linker er også viktige. Compiler oversetter kildekode til object code eller machine code. Linker kombinerer object files og biblioteker til ett ferdig kjørbart program. Static linking betyr at bibliotekkode bygges inn i programmet ved kompilering, mens dynamic linking betyr at biblioteker kobles til under runtime. C preprocessor er et tidlig steg i C-kompilering og håndterer blant annet #include, #define og conditional compilation før selve kompileringen skjer. I kodegjenkjenning er det spesielt viktig å kjenne igjen GDT-strukturer. Hvis man ser felt som limit_low, base_low, base_middle, access, granularity og base_high, handler det svært sannsynlig om oppsett av en GDT entry. For denne prøveeksamenen er det spesielt viktig å kunne forklare forskjellen mellom multitasking og multithreading, real mode og protected mode, GDT og IDT, hardware og software interrupts, stack og heap, samt static og dynamic linking. Kort oppsummert tester denne eksamenen forståelse av hvordan et operativsystem organiserer programmer, minne, hardware og CPU gjennom strukturerte mekanismer. Kjernen er operativsystemets rolle, x86-moduser, minnehåndtering, descriptor tables, interrupts og systemtiming. Hvis man forstår hvordan disse delene henger sammen som et samlet system, blir både multiple choice-spørsmål og kodeoppgaver langt lettere å forstå

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