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🌎 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY — SIMPLE STUDY NOTES 1. What is Geography? 🗺️ Geography Geography = studying places on Earth and what happens there. Easy way to remember: History = WHEN things happened Geography = WHERE things happen Physical Geography Physical geography = studying the natural parts of Earth. Examples: * 🌋 Volcanoes * 🌊 Oceans * 🌧️ Weather * 🌳 Plants * 🏔️ Mountains * 🌎 Earth’s surface Human Geography Human geography = studying people and how they interact with places. Examples: * Cities * Population * Culture * Migration * Businesses Geographic Techniques These are tools geographers use to study Earth. ⸻ 🛰️ 2. Remote Sensing Remote Sensing Measuring or studying something from far away WITHOUT touching it. Think: 👀 Looking at Earth from a distance Examples: * 🛰️ Satellite * ✈️ Airplane * 🚁 UAV/drone Quizlet card Q: What is remote sensing? A: Studying or measuring Earth from a distance. ⸻ 🌍 3. Latitude & Longitude THIS is important. Imagine Earth has an invisible grid around it. The grid helps us say exactly where a place is. There are two main directions: LATITUDE = up and down on a map Latitude tells you how far NORTH or SOUTH you are from the Equator. 🌎 Equator = 0° latitude Think: LATITUDE = LADDER 🪜 The lines look like they go across Earth, but latitude tells you NORTH or SOUTH. Examples: * Equator = 0° * North Pole = 90° N * South Pole = 90° S So: 40° N = 40 degrees north of the Equator. ⸻ 📍 4. Longitude Longitude tells you how far EAST or WEST you are from the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is: 0° longitude It runs through Greenwich, England. Think: LONGITUDE = LONG lines that go from pole to pole Longitude goes: 0° → 180° East 0° → 180° West A ⸻ 🧠 EASIEST WAY TO REMEMBER. What does it measure? Starting point Latitude North ↕ South Equator = 0° Longitude East ↔ West Prime Meridian = 0° Memory trick: LAT = flat Latitude lines look flat/horizontal on most maps. LONG = long Longitude lines go long from pole to pole. ⸻ 🌎 5. Hemispheres “Hemi” means half. So a hemisphere is simply half of Earth. There are 4: Northern Hemisphere Above the Equator. Southern Hemisphere Below the Equator. Eastern Hemisphere East of the Prime Meridian. Western Hemisphere West of the Prime Meridian. ⸻ ⭐ 6. POLARIS QUESTION Your professor asks: If Polaris is 39° above the horizon, what is your latitude? Don’t panic. 😭 The rule: Polaris’s angle above the horizon = your latitude BUT this works in the Northern Hemisphere. So: Polaris = 39° Therefore: ✅ Latitude = 39° N That’s literally it. Why? Polaris is basically lined up with the North Pole. If you’re: * At the Equator → Polaris is about 0° above the horizon. * At 39° N → Polaris is 39° above the horizon. * At the North Pole → Polaris is about 90° above the horizon. So: Polaris angle = latitude Quizlet Q: Polaris is 39° above the horizon. What is your latitude? A: 39° N ⸻ 🕘 7. THE LONGITUDE MATH QUESTION This one looks scary because your professor wrote a bunch of stuff. But it’s really just two steps. Question: You set your watch to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). You travel somewhere else. When the Sun is directly overhead, your watch says 9 AM. What is your longitude? First understand: ☀️ “Sun directly overhead” This means: It is local solar noon. In other words: The place you’re standing = NOON But your watch says: 9 AM GMT So: Noon - 9 AM = 3 hours You’re 3 hours behind Greenwich. ⸻ 🧮 Now the important math Earth rotates: 15° every hour This is something you should memorize. So: 3 hours × 15° = 45° Therefore: ✅ 45° West Why WEST? Because your location is experiencing noon later than Greenwich. Think: Greenwich already reached noon. Your location is still behind Greenwich’s time. So you’re WEST. The whole problem: 12 PM − 9 AM = 3 hours 3 × 15° = 45° Answer: ⭐ 45° W ⸻ ☀️ SUN ANGLE HIGH/DIRECT ANGLE ☀️ ⬇️ ⬇️ 🌎 Energy is concentrated → stronger heating 🔥 LOW ANGLE ☀️ ↘️ ↘️ ↘️ 🌎 Energy spreads out → weaker heating 🥶 🧠 Remember: STRAIGHT = STRONG ☀️ TILTED = WEAKER ☀️ ⸻ 📐 PERPENDICULAR Perpendicular = 90° Think: ⊥ One line is standing straight on another. For sunlight: ☀️ ⬇️ ⬇️ ━━━━ Earth The sunlight is hitting the surface straight on.

🌎 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY — SIMPLE STUDY NOTES 1. What is Geography? 🗺️ Geography Geography = studying places on Earth and what happens there. Easy way to remember: History = WHEN things happened Geography = WHERE things happen Physical Geography Physical geography = studying the natural parts of Earth. Examples: * 🌋 Volcanoes * 🌊 Oceans * 🌧️ Weather * 🌳 Plants * 🏔️ Mountains * 🌎 Earth’s surface Human Geography Human geography = studying people and how they interact with places. Examples: * Cities * Population * Culture * Migration * Businesses Geographic Techniques These are tools geographers use to study Earth. ⸻ 🛰️ 2. Remote Sensing Remote Sensing Measuring or studying something from far away WITHOUT touching it. Think: 👀 Looking at Earth from a distance Examples: * 🛰️ Satellite * ✈️ Airplane * 🚁 UAV/drone Quizlet card Q: What is remote sensing? A: Studying or measuring Earth from a distance. ⸻ 🌍 3. Latitude & Longitude THIS is important. Imagine Earth has an invisible grid around it. The grid helps us say exactly where a place is. There are two main directions: LATITUDE = up and down on a map Latitude tells you how far NORTH or SOUTH you are from the Equator. 🌎 Equator = 0° latitude Think: LATITUDE = LADDER 🪜 The lines look like they go across Earth, but latitude tells you NORTH or SOUTH. Examples: * Equator = 0° * North Pole = 90° N * South Pole = 90° S So: 40° N = 40 degrees north of the Equator. ⸻ 📍 4. Longitude Longitude tells you how far EAST or WEST you are from the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is: 0° longitude It runs through Greenwich, England. Think: LONGITUDE = LONG lines that go from pole to pole Longitude goes: 0° → 180° East 0° → 180° West A ⸻ 🧠 EASIEST WAY TO REMEMBER. What does it measure? Starting point Latitude North ↕ South Equator = 0° Longitude East ↔ West Prime Meridian = 0° Memory trick: LAT = flat Latitude lines look flat/horizontal on most maps. LONG = long Longitude lines go long from pole to pole. ⸻ 🌎 5. Hemispheres “Hemi” means half. So a hemisphere is simply half of Earth. There are 4: Northern Hemisphere Above the Equator. Southern Hemisphere Below the Equator. Eastern Hemisphere East of the Prime Meridian. Western Hemisphere West of the Prime Meridian. ⸻ ⭐ 6. POLARIS QUESTION Your professor asks: If Polaris is 39° above the horizon, what is your latitude? Don’t panic. 😭 The rule: Polaris’s angle above the horizon = your latitude BUT this works in the Northern Hemisphere. So: Polaris = 39° Therefore: ✅ Latitude = 39° N That’s literally it. Why? Polaris is basically lined up with the North Pole. If you’re: * At the Equator → Polaris is about 0° above the horizon. * At 39° N → Polaris is 39° above the horizon. * At the North Pole → Polaris is about 90° above the horizon. So: Polaris angle = latitude Quizlet Q: Polaris is 39° above the horizon. What is your latitude? A: 39° N ⸻ 🕘 7. THE LONGITUDE MATH QUESTION This one looks scary because your professor wrote a bunch of stuff. But it’s really just two steps. Question: You set your watch to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). You travel somewhere else. When the Sun is directly overhead, your watch says 9 AM. What is your longitude? First understand: ☀️ “Sun directly overhead” This means: It is local solar noon. In other words: The place you’re standing = NOON But your watch says: 9 AM GMT So: Noon - 9 AM = 3 hours You’re 3 hours behind Greenwich. ⸻ 🧮 Now the important math Earth rotates: 15° every hour This is something you should memorize. So: 3 hours × 15° = 45° Therefore: ✅ 45° West Why WEST? Because your location is experiencing noon later than Greenwich. Think: Greenwich already reached noon. Your location is still behind Greenwich’s time. So you’re WEST. The whole problem: 12 PM − 9 AM = 3 hours 3 × 15° = 45° Answer: ⭐ 45° W ⸻ ☀️ SUN ANGLE HIGH/DIRECT ANGLE ☀️ ⬇️ ⬇️ 🌎 Energy is concentrated → stronger heating 🔥 LOW ANGLE ☀️ ↘️ ↘️ ↘️ 🌎 Energy spreads out → weaker heating 🥶 🧠 Remember: STRAIGHT = STRONG ☀️ TILTED = WEAKER ☀️ ⸻ 📐 PERPENDICULAR Perpendicular = 90° Think: ⊥ One line is standing straight on another. For sunlight: ☀️ ⬇️ ⬇️ ━━━━ Earth The sunlight is hitting the surface straight on.

📝 THEOC 1301 — QUIZ 1 COMPLETE STUDY GUIDE 🟣 SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO THEOLOGY slide 2 — overview: theology theology = a reasoning process about god and all he has made known to us through divine revelation. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf in simpler words: theology is using reason/thinking to understand what god has revealed. MEMORIZE: theology = reasoning about god + divine revelation ⸻ slide 3 — overview: oikonomia oikonomia = economy it means: * stewardship * administration it refers to: the works by which god reveals himself and communicates his life. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf MEMORIZE: oikonomia = stewardship/administration + god revealing himself and communicating his life ⸻ slide 4 — the bible the bible is: * the primary source for studying theology * the inspired and inerrant word of god * god’s self-communication to us * given for the sake of our salvation the slide also says: “the study of the sacred page should be the very soul of sacred theology” — dei verbum 24 THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf what you need to understand: the bible is extremely important to theology because it is god communicating himself to us, and theology studies it to understand what god has revealed. MEMORIZE: bible = primary source + inspired/inerrant word of god + god’s self-communication + salvation ⸻ slide 5 — the church fathers the slide connects theology with: “faith seeking understanding” this is from st. anselm. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf fathers the fathers are: * orthodox * holy * pre-800 ad doctors doctors are people who made significant contributions through profound understanding of the faith. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf easiest way to remember: fathers → orthodox + holy + before 800 doctors → significant contributors + profound understanding ⸻ slide 6 — the magisterium what is the magisterium? the official teaching authority of the church. the pope’s primary duties regarding christ’s teaching: 1. protect 2. interpret 3. pass down THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf MEMORIZE: magisterium = official teaching authority pope = protect, interpret, pass down ⸻ ⭐ slide 11 — the vocation of the theologian 🚨 ESSAY TOPIC this is one of the most important sections. the theologian’s vocation is: to pursue an ever-deeper understanding of the word found in scripture, handed on by tradition, in communion with the magisterium. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf the theologian also: * responds to the invitation of truth * seeks to understand faith * helps the people of god give an accounting for their hope * seeks truth so people can become disciples * communicates the faith * serves love by giving people better knowledge of god THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf basically: the theologian is supposed to understand the faith more deeply and help other people understand it too. ⭐ essay formula: deeper understanding → scripture + tradition → communion with magisterium → help people understand faith → communicate faith → better knowledge of god ⸻ slide 12 — vocation of the theologian, continued the theologian should: 1. deepen their own faith they unite: research + prayer 2. use proper intellectual standards they should be attentive to: * epistemological requirements * critical standards * rational verification 3. grow spiritually they should make a spiritual effort to grow in: virtue + holiness THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf remember: the theologian needs BOTH: intellectual growth → research + critical thinking + rational verification spiritual growth → prayer + virtue + holiness ⸻ slide 13 — vocation of the theologian, continued theologians understand revelation through: * philosophical concepts * historical disciplines * human sciences BUT: the ultimate normative principle is revealed doctrine. their teaching must in no way harm the doctrine of the faith. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf there is freedom within the church’s faith. the theologian should also be open to: * objective discussion * fraternal dialogue * modifying their own opinions THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf ⭐ important idea: theologians can think, research, and discuss, but their work remains within the church’s faith and revealed doctrine. ⸻ ⭐ slide 17 — magisterium & theology (collaborative) 🚨 ESSAY TOPIC the magisterium and theology have the same goal: preserving the people in truth. but they have different roles: magisterium → authentically teaches doctrine theology → strives to clarify revelation with regard to reason the theologian must present doctrine with full accuracy and integrity. the magisterium’s infallible pronouncements call for assent of theological faith. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf memorize: same goal, different roles. ⸻ slide 18 — magisterium & theology (continued) definitive truths the magisterium’s definitive truths concerning: faith + morals must be: firmly accepted and held. non-definitive teaching teaching meant to: * aid understanding * guard against error calls for: religious submission of will and intellect. theologians theologians are expected to loyally submit to the teaching of the magisterium, including when it intervenes authoritatively. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf memorize this distinction: definitive → firmly accepted and held non-definitive → religious submission of will + intellect ⸻ slide 19 — magisterium & theology (continued) the relationship isn’t necessarily perfect agreement all the time. the slide says magisterial documents might not be free from all deficiencies. there can also be: non-hostile tensions between theologians and the magisterium. these tensions can become a dynamic factor stimulating both when they practice dialogue. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf basically: disagreement/tension isn’t automatically bad. non-hostile tension + dialogue → can stimulate both ⸻ slide 20 — magisterium & theology (continued) the theologian should not present personal opinions or divergences as if they were non-arguable conclusions. also: conscience is NOT an autonomous and exclusive authority for deciding doctrinal truth. obedience of faith leads to loyal acceptance of the magisterium’s teaching. if difficulties continue, the theologian should: make the problems known to the magisterium — NOT the mass media. they should also remain open to a deeper examination of the question. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf ⭐ remember: personal opinion ≠ unquestionable doctrine problem → magisterium, not mass media ⸻ slide 24 — dissent: following one’s conscience the slide says: “following one’s conscience” cannot legitimate dissent. a right conscience is: * illumined by faith * based on objective moral law * has an upright will * pursues the true good things that are NOT legitimate include: * polling public opinion * pressuring through public opinion * claiming there is a consensus among theologians * presenting theologians as a prophetic “base” THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf important: the slide isn’t saying conscience doesn’t matter. it’s saying following your conscience cannot simply be used as a justification for dissent. ⸻ 🟢 slide 27 — why study theology? truth is food + truth is light revealed truth = food we need to be nourished by it. the eucharist ensures we aren’t entirely unnourished. doctrine = light much of reality can only be known if god tells us. the church helps communicate some truths even to people who aren’t very interested. living undernourished or half in the dark is a pity. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf MEMORIZE: truth = food doctrine = light ⸻ slide 28 — why study theology? ignorance is not a virtue ignorance is not a virtue. why? knowledge serves love. more knowledge of god: → helps us love him more → removes misunderstandings → gives us more reasons to love him. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf memorize: knowledge of god → greater love ⸻ slide 29 — ignorance is not a virtue continued the slide says millions are spiritually “starved” because they lack truth and don’t have the eucharist. the slide says spiritual starvation should largely be relieved by the laity, because they are in contact with those who need it. the laity need to understand the great dogmas: * for the sake of those who are hungry * and for their own sake. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf key idea: laity → understand the great dogmas → help relieve spiritual starvation ⸻ slide 30 — ignorance is not a virtue continued studying theology should be accompanied by: reading scripture because scripture has a wonderful power to make truths: come alive in the soul. THEO2301 Session01 (1 per page)(1).pdf ⸻ 🔵 SESSION 2 — FAITH & REASON slide 2 — faith & reason main idea: there can’t be a real discrepancy between faith and reason. why? because the light of both comes from god. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf memorize: faith + reason don’t truly contradict because both come from god. ⸻ slide 3 — faith defined you have THREE definitions. biblical: “the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen.” dogmatic: faith is: * a gift of god * a human act * complete submission of intellect + will to god common sense: faith = complete trust and confidence in someone. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf MEMORIZE THIS: biblical → assurance of things hoped for dogmatic → gift of god + intellect/will submitted to god common sense → trust/confidence ⸻ slide 4 — knowledge revealed by god knowledge directly revealed by god is: more certain than knowledge gained through mere human experience. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf that’s basically the entire slide. ⸻ slide 5 — faith is absolute trust faith = absolute trust in god. and this is: eminently reasonable. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf again, this reinforces the idea that faith isn’t opposed to reason. ⸻ slide 9 — mysteries of christian faith the mysteries of christian faith: transcend human reason BUT never contradict reason. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf THIS DISTINCTION IS IMPORTANT: transcend = go beyond contradict = go against so: faith can go beyond what human reason can fully understand without contradicting reason. ⸻ slide 10 — qualities of faith faith is: * personal + communal relationship * seeks understanding * friend of reason * necessary for salvation * gift of grace * free human act * believes with conviction in a message THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf memorize the list. ⸻ slide 11 — challenges to faith 1. “wall” of separation faith should have no impact on the state/society. 2. ideological secularism the idea that: we are self-sufficient + self-explanatory therefore: faith isn’t needed. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf ⸻ slide 16 — complementary forms of wisdom there are two: philosophical wisdom the naturally limited capacity of the intellect to explore reality. theological wisdom explores the contents of faith based upon revelation. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf memorize: philosophical → intellect → reality theological → revelation → faith they are complementary, meaning they’re meant to work together. ⸻ slide 17 — faith + reason this is another VERY important contrast: without faith: reason is in danger of losing sight of its final goal. without reason: faith has stressed feeling and experience. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf easiest way: reason needs faith faith needs reason ⸻ slide 18 — st. bonaventure this is basically a warning about separating intellectual study from spiritual life. the slide says theologians should recognize the inadequacy of things like: * reading without repentance * knowledge without devotion * research without wonder * prudence without joy * action divorced from religion * learning separated from love * intelligence without humility * study without divine grace * thought without wisdom inspired by god THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf don’t worry about memorizing every word. remember the overall point: studying and intelligence aren’t enough by themselves; they need devotion, humility, love, religion, and divine grace. ⸻ slide 19 — final conclusion 1. god can be known with certitude by reason from created things. 2. revelation is necessary because we are ordained for a supernatural end that surpasses human understanding. THEO2301 Session02 (1 per page).pdf easiest way: reason → can know god revelation → necessary because supernatural end surpasses human understanding

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Human Anatomy and Physiology Third Edition Chapter 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (1 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties •Cellular Composition—Cells are the smallest units that carry out the functions of life •Metabolism—Living organisms carry out chemical processes collectively called metabolism –“Building” processes are known as Anabolism –“Breaking down” processes are known as Catabolism •Growth—An increase in the size and/or number of cells Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (2 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued) •Excretion—Elimination of potentially harmful waste products created by metabolic processes •Responsiveness or Irritability—Organisms sense and react to changes or stimuli in their environment •Movement—Organisms or individual cells of an organism move •Reproduction—Production of new cells during growth or repair or reproduction of new organisms Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (1 of 7) The body is constructed of a series of progressively larger “building blocks” known as the Structural Levels of Organization •Chemical Level—This is the smallest level; Chemicals range from tiny atoms to complex molecules •Cellular Level—Groups of many different types of molecules combine in specific ways to form cellular structures •Tissue Level—Two or more cell types and material outside them, called extracellular matrix, combine to perform a common function Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (2 of 7) Structural Levels of Organization (continued) •Organ Level—Two or more tissue types combine to form an organ with a recognizable shape that performs a specialized task •Organ System Level—Two or more organs that together carry out a broad function in the body –The human body has 11 organ systems •Organism Level—The organ systems function together to make up the working human body—an organism Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (3 of 7) Figure 1.5 Six structural levels of organization of the human body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (4 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (5 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (6 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (7 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 2) Study of Anatomy can be approached in several ways •Systemic Anatomy—Examines individual organ systems •Regional Anatomy—Examines the body in regions, such as the head and neck •Surface Anatomy—Examines surface markings •Gross Anatomy—Examines structures that can be seen with the unaided eye •Microscopic Anatomy—Examines cells (Cytology) and tissues (Histology) with the use of a microscope Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 2) Study of Physiology includes numerous subfields •Physiology subfields are classified by organ or organ systems, such as neurophysiology and cardiophysiology •Physiologists can also study other structural levels of organization of the body such as chemical, cellular, and tissue levels Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Word Parts •The language of science is built on Word Roots—core components of words with specific meanings •Word roots are combined with Prefixes and Suffixes to yield scientific terms •For example, combine the following: –Prefix an- (means without) –Word root encephala- (means brain) –Suffix -ic (means condition of) •“Anencephalic” is the condition of lacking a part of the brain Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (1 of 4) Anatomical Position—Common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described regardless of position –Body is standing upright –Feet are shoulder width apart –Upper limbs at the sides of trunk –Head and palms facing forward Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (2 of 4) Directional Terms—Describe the relative locations of body parts and markings to ensure accurate communication among scientists and healthcare professionals •Anterior/Posterior—Anterior refers to the front and posterior refers to the back; Can refer to body as a whole or to a body part •Superior/Inferior—Superior, or cranial, means towards the head and inferior, or caudal, means towards the tail; Used to refer to positions on head, neck, and trunk only Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (3 of 4) Directional Terms (continued) •Proximal/Distal—Proximal means closer to the point of origin and distal means further from the point of origin; Used to refer to positions on the limbs only •Medial/Lateral—Medial refers to a position closer to the middle line of the body, called the midline, and lateral refers to a position farther away from the midline •Superficial/Deep—Superficial refers to structures closer to the surface of the body and deep refers to structures farther below Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (4 of 4) Figure 1.7 Directional terms. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Medical Errors •Most medical errors occur when a patient is dispensed the wrong type or dose of medication •Occasionally, they involve surgery and are known as “wrong site” or “wrong body” procedures when the surgeon operates on the wrong part of the body or even the wrong patient •Precise communication with appropriate use of anatomical terminology is critical to prevent medical errors Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (1 of 7) Regional Terms—The body can be divided into two broad regions: Axial (head, neck, and trunk); and Appendicular (upper and lower limbs or appendages) •Each broad region can be divided into several smaller Regions •Regions may be named as nouns, such as the upper arm or brachium, or as adjective with the addition of a suffix such as -al, which is paired with the word “region” to give us the term brachial region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (2 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (3 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (4 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Trunk Pertaining To: Abdominal The abdomen Cervical The neck Gluteal The buttocks Inguinal The groin Lumbar The lower back Pelvic The pelvis Pubic The pubis Sacral The sacrum Sternal The sternum Thoracic The chest Vertebral The spinal column Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (5 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Head and Face Pertaining To: Buccal The cheek Cranial The skull Cephalic The head Frontal The forehead Mental The chin Nasal The nose Occipital The back of the head Ocular The eye Oral The mouth Otic The ear Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (6 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Upper Limb Pertaining To: Acromial The point of the shoulder Antebrachial The forearm Antecubital The anterior surface of the elbow Axillary The armpit Brachial The arm Carpal The wrist Digital The fingers (or toes) Manual The hand Metacarpal The metacarpals (bones of the hand) Palmar The palm Pollex The thumb Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (7 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Lower Limb Pertaining To: Coxal The hip Crural The anterior surface of the leg Femoral The thigh Hallux The great toe Metatarsal The metatarsals (bones of the foot) Patellar The anterior surface of the knee Pedal The foot Plantar The sole of the foot Popliteal The posterior surface of the knee Sural The posterior surface of the leg Tarsal The ankle Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (1 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Cervical region 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior side, Lateral to midline; Begins inferior to mental region; Ends superior to thoracic region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle; Superficial to underlying larynx 4.Put It All Together—Incision on anterior cervical region lateral to midline; Extended vertically 1 centimeter inferior to mental region to 2 centimeters superior to thoracic region; Deep to skin and muscle, but superficial to larynx Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (2 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Left Crural 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior and medial side; Proximal to tarsal region and distal to patellar region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone 4.Put It All Together—Wound on left anteromedial crural region, 10 centimeters proximal to tarsal region and 6 centimeters distal to patellar region; Pellet is lodged deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_video.true/bc_amerman_hap_3_concept-boost_ch1 Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (1 of 4) Planes of Section—Divide a body or body part for examination •Sagittal Plane—Divides body into right and left sections –Midsagittal Plane: Also called a Median Plane; Sections are equal –Parasagittal Plane: Sections are unequal Figure 1.9a Sagittal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (2 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Frontal Plane—Also called a Coronal Plane; Divides body into anterior and posterior sections Figure 1.9b Frontal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (3 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Transverse Plane— Also called a Horizontal Plane or Cross Section; Divides body into superior and inferior sections or proximal and distal sections •Oblique Plane—Used less frequently; Taken at an angle Figure 1.9c Transverse planes. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (4 of 4) Study Boost: How to Learn Anatomical Terms •Flashcards are popular because research shows that they work –Make customized flashcards with Practice Anatomy Lab™ Flashcards in the Study Area of Mastering® A&P –Make handwritten flashcards •Don’t forget to “Bring It Back” by quizzing yourself and “Mix It Up” by randomizing the order Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Posterior Body Cavity Cavity—Any space within the body; Protects internal organs and allows them to move Posterior Body Cavity— Located on posterior side of body •Cranial Cavity—Within the skull; Includes the brain •Spinal Cavity—Within the vertebral column; Includes the spinal cord •Both cavities are filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid, which bathes both organs Figure 1.10a Posterior body cavity, lateral view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (1 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity—Has two main divisions separated by the muscular diaphragm •Thoracic Cavity is superior to the diaphragm •Abdominopelvic Cavity is inferior to the diaphragm •Smaller cavities exist within the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities formed by sheets of tissue termed Serous Membranes Figure 1.10b Anterior body cavity, anterior view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (2 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Thoracic Cavity –Pleural Cavities—Surround left and right lungs –Mediastinum—Between pleural cavities; Houses heart, great vessels, trachea (windpipe), and esophagus; Not within serous membrane –Pericardial Cavity—Within mediastinum; Within serous membrane that surrounds heart Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (3 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Abdominopelvic Cavity—Subdivided into superior Abdominal Cavity (diaphragm to bony pelvis) and inferior Pelvic Cavity (within bony pelvis) •Contains organs from digestive, lymphatic, urinary, and reproductive systems •Peritoneal Cavity—Abdominal subcavity found within serous membranes Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (4 of 8) Abdominopelvic Cavity can be divided into segments by drawing imaginary lines through its surface •One system divides the cavity into four Quadrants –Right and left upper quadrants (R U Q and L U Q); Right and left lower quadrants (R L Q and L L Q) •A second system divides the cavity into nine Regions –Right and left hypochondriac regions, Right and left lumbar regions; Right and left iliac regions; Epigastric region; Umbilical region; Hypogastric region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (5 of 8) Figure 1.11 The four quadrants and nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Abdominal Pain •Abdominal pain is a common reason for people to seek health care, but the number of structures in the abdominopelvic cavity make diagnoses difficult •The four-quadrant system helps to narrow down potential diagnoses •For example, R L Q pain may be from the appendix, ovaries in female, the first part of the large intestine, or the last portion of the small intestine Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (6 of 8) Serous Membranes—Thin sheets of tissue that fold over to form continuous double-layered structures filled with Serous Fluid to lubricate organs in the cavity –Visceral Layer—Contacts the organ –Parietal Layer—Attaches to surrounding structures Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (7 of 8) Serous Membranes (continued) •Pleural Membranes—Surround the lungs; Includes parietal and visceral pleura •Pericardial Membranes—Surround the heart; Includes parietal and visceral pericardium •Peritoneal Membranes—Surround some abdominal organs (Intraperitoneal); Includes parietal and visceral peritoneum •Organs behind the parietal peritoneum are Retroperitoneal Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (8 of 8) Figure 1.13 The serous membranes of the anterior body cavities. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (1 of 2) •Used to look inside patients without surgery; Different forms of radiation form images of internal structures often along specific planes •X-Ray uses ionizing radiation; Chest image is shown (top) •Computed Tomography Scan (C T) uses ionizing radiation; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of abdominopelvic and peritoneal cavities is shown (bottom) Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (2 of 2) •Magnetic Resonance Imaging (M R I) involves the body being placed within a magnetic field; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of the abdominopelvic cavity is shown Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology Core Principles—Set of basic concepts of anatomy and physiology that are revisited repeatedly in the text; They are related to maintaining the body’s internal environment •Feedback Loops •Relationship of Structure and Function •Gradients •Cell-Cell Communication Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Overall Theme: Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain the Body’s Homeostasis •Homeostasis—The condition in which the body develops and maintains a relatively stable internal environment –Homeostatic Imbalances—Disturbances in homeostasis can lead to disease or death if uncorrected –Regulated Variables—Variables in the internal environment, such as temperature, blood sugar, and many others, are controlled to stay close to a particular normal value –Controlled Variables—Variables that are manipulated to maintain the regulated variables, such as the process that increases blood sugar from stored carbohydrates Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (1 of 8) Feedback Loops—A change in a regulated variable causes effects that feed back and in turn affect that same variable •Made up of a series of events that lead to an output •As the loops continue, this output then influences the events of the loops themselves •Negative Feedback Loops—Oppose the initial change and reduce the output •Positive Feedback Loops—Reinforce the initial change and increase the output Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (2 of 8) Negative Feedback Loops—Promote stability; Negating any stimulus that moves a variable away from homeostasis •Each variable has a Set Point that includes a Normal Range around that set point •The range differs for individual variables Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (3 of 8) Steps of a Negative Feedback Loop 1.Stimulus—Information that a regulated variable is outside the normal range 2.Receptor or Sensor—Cellular structure that registers the stimulus 3.Control Center—Stimulus is sent to the control center (brain or gland) by the nervous or endocrine systems 4.Effector—The cells or organ that will react 5.Responses—Effector causes the response that will return the variable to the normal range Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (4 of 8) Figure 1.14 Control of room temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (5 of 8) Figure 1.15 Control of body temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (6 of 8) Study Boost: Keeping Track of the Body’s Feedback Loops •Feedback loops occur in all body systems so there are many to remember •As you learn new feedback loops, add them to the Feedback Loops Master List page at the front of the Active-Learning Workbook •Use the list to quiz yourself “Bring It Back,” review feedback loops from other chapters “Space It Out,” and have a friend quiz you from the list in a random order “Mix It Up” Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (7 of 8) Positive Feedback Loops—Less common than negative feedback loops; Increases the response to a stimulus; Reinforces the initial stimulus •Will eventually shut off in response to an external stimulus or some outside event that is not part of the positive feedback loop •Positive feedback loops are often found within a negative feedback loop to produce a quicker response Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (8 of 8) Figure 1.16 Control of blood clotting by a positive feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (1 of 2) •Misconception 1: Negative feedback is bad for the body; Positive feedback is good –Under normal circumstances, both types of feedback loops promote homeostasis •Misconception 2: Maintaining homeostasis means the body’s internal environment is static or unchanging –Maintenance of normal ranges does not mean the internal environment is unchanging; Changes are normal and are occurring constantly Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (2 of 2) •Misconception 3: Regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops are either “on” or “off,” like a switch –The internal environment is dynamic so feedback loops always exhibit some degree of activity •Misconception 4: Any physiological variable can be controlled –Variables can only be controlled through feedback loops if receptors exist to detect changes in the set point Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 BioFlix: Homeostasis Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: BioFlix: Homeostasis https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/loMS4qosEmL53haP3z1Z_eWMupIkyIFv Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive Feedback Loops •Childbirth begins when a woman goes into labor, which occurs by a positive feedback loop •Baby’s head stretches the cervix (stimulus); Data from nerves in the cervix (receptors) are sent to the brain (control center); Uterus (effector) produces hormone oxytocin which stimulates uterine contractions (response); This continues and is amplified until the baby is born, which stops the feedback loop •Pitocin is a synthetic version of oxytocin that is used when labor needs to be artificially started, or induced Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Structure and Function are Related at All Levels of Organization Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function •The form of a structure is such that it best suits its function; Applies to all levels of organization Figure 1.17 The relationship between structure and function. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Gradients Drive Many Physiological Processes Gradients are present any time more of something exists in one area than another and the two areas are connected •Gradients drive many of our physiological processes Figure 1.18 Examples of gradients. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Cell-Cell Communication is Required to Coordinate Body Functions •Cells communicate with each other to maintain homeostasis •Electrical Signals are transmitted between neighboring cells •Chemical Messengers released from cells may work on neighboring cells or move to other cells through body fluids Figure 1.19 Communication between a nerve cell and a muscle cell.