Unit 1: Psychology’s History and Approaches
Big Idea:
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
This unit asks: Why do people think, feel, and behave the way they do, and how do psychologists study it?
1. Early Schools of Thought
Structuralism
Focused on breaking conscious experiences into smaller parts.
Example: Describing every taste, smell, and feeling while eating pizza.
Functionalism
Focused on WHY behaviors and thoughts exist.
Example: Fear exists because it helps humans survive danger.
Connection:
Structuralists asked “What are thoughts made of?” Functionalists asked “What purpose do thoughts serve?”
2. Major Psychological Perspectives
Biological Perspective
Behavior comes from the brain, genetics, and hormones.
Example: Depression connected to serotonin levels.
Behavioral Perspective
Behavior is learned through rewards and punishments.
Example: A dog learns tricks because it gets treats.
Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
Example: Why students remember some facts better than others.
Humanistic Perspective
Humans naturally strive for growth.
Example: Trying to achieve goals and improve yourself.
Psychodynamic Perspective
Unconscious conflicts affect behavior.
Example: Getting unusually angry because of hidden stress.
Evolutionary Perspective
Behaviors developed because they helped survival.
Example: Humans naturally fearing dangerous animals.
Sociocultural Perspective
Behavior is shaped by culture and society.
Example: Different cultures have different expectations for personal space.
3. Research Methods
Experiment
Used to determine cause and effect.
Independent Variable
What the researcher changes.
Dependent Variable
What the researcher measures.
Example: Studying whether sleep affects test scores.
* Amount of sleep = IV
* Test score = DV
Correlation
Shows relationship between variables.
Important:
Correlation does NOT equal causation.
Example: Ice cream sales and drowning both rise during summer.
Random Assignment
Participants randomly placed into groups.
Helps reduce bias.
Double-Blind Procedure
Neither researchers nor participants know who receives treatment.
Prevents expectations from affecting results.
BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION
The AP exam loves asking:
* Which perspective best explains this behavior?
* Which research method should be used?
* Why doesn’t correlation prove causation?
Example: A psychologist studies how rewards affect studying. → Behavioral perspective + experiment
Unit 2: Biological Basis of Behavior
Big Idea:
Your brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics all shape behavior.
The whole unit asks: How do your body and brain create thoughts, emotions, and behavior?
1. Nature vs. Nurture = Who You Are
Main Idea:
Your behavior comes from BOTH:
* Nature = genetics/heredity
* Nurture = environment and experiences
Example: Someone may inherit anxiety tendencies but stressful experiences can make anxiety stronger.
2. Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Brain + spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Activates during stress.
Example: Heart racing before giving a speech.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Calms the body afterward.
3. Neurotransmitters
Dopamine
Reward and pleasure.
Example: Social media likes feel rewarding.
Serotonin
Mood and sleep.
Low levels linked to depression.
Acetylcholine
Movement and memory.
Linked to Alzheimer’s disease.
GABA
Calms nervous system.
Low GABA linked to anxiety.
4. Brain Structures
Frontal Lobe
Decision-making and personality.
Occipital Lobe
Vision.
Temporal Lobe
Hearing and memory.
Hippocampus
Memory formation.
Amygdala
Fear and aggression.
BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION
A student panicking before a test:
* amygdala activates fear
* sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate
* adrenaline releases
Unit 3: Sensation and Perception
Big Idea:
Sensation detects information. Perception interprets information.
This unit asks: How does the brain create your experience of the world?
1. Sensation
Absolute Threshold
Smallest amount of stimulation needed to notice something.
Example: Hearing a quiet text notification.
Difference Threshold
Smallest noticeable difference between stimuli.
Example: Noticing the TV volume changed.
Sensory Adaptation
Becoming less aware of constant stimulation.
Example: Not noticing your hoodie after wearing it awhile.
2. Vision
Rods
Help see in dim light.
Cones
Detect color.
Blind Spot
Area without receptors.
3. Hearing
Frequency
Determines pitch.
Amplitude
Determines loudness.
4. Perception
Gestalt Principles
The brain organizes pieces into meaningful wholes.
Example: Seeing a complete logo even with missing parts.
Depth Perception
Ability to see distance in 3D.
Example: Catching a volleyball.
Perceptual Set
Expectations affect perception.
Example: Misreading a word because you expected something else.
BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION
The exam often gives optical illusions or perception scenarios.
Example: A person stops noticing a strong smell after 10 minutes. → sensory adaptation
Unit 4: Learning
Big Idea:
Behavior changes because of experience.
This unit asks: How do humans and animals learn behaviors?
1. Classical Conditioning
Learning through association.
Pavlov’s Dogs
Dogs learned to associate a bell with food.
Unconditioned Stimulus
Naturally causes response.
Conditioned Stimulus
Previously neutral stimulus causing learned response.
Example: Feeling hungry when hearing the microwave beep.
2. Operant Conditioning
Learning through rewards and punishments.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding something good to increase behavior.
Example: Getting money for good grades.
Negative Reinforcement
Removing something unpleasant.
Example: Seatbelt alarm stopping.
Punishment
Decreases behavior.
3. Observational Learning
Learning by watching others.
Example: Kids copying influencers online.
BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION
The AP exam loves reinforcement examples.
Example: A student studies harder after praise from parents. → positive reinforcement
Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology
Big Idea:
Humans think, remember, solve problems, and use language.
This unit asks: How does the mind process information?
1. Memory Process
Encoding
Getting information into memory.
Storage
Keeping information over time.
Retrieval
Getting information back.
2. Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Very brief memory.
Short-Term Memory
Temporary limited storage.
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent storage.
Working Memory
Actively using information.
Example: Doing math in your head.
3. Forgetting
Proactive Interference
Old information disrupts new information.
Retroactive Interference
New information disrupts old information.
Example: Forgetting old password after learning a new one.
4. Problem Solving
Algorithm
Step-by-step method.
Heuristic
Mental shortcut.
Confirmation Bias
Looking for information supporting beliefs.
Example: Only reading opinions you already agree with.
BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION
A student mixes up Spanish vocabulary from last year with current vocabulary. → proactive interference
Unit 6: Developmental Psychology
Big Idea:
Humans develop physically, mentally, and socially across life.
This unit asks: How do people change from infancy through adulthood?
1. Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage
Babies learn through senses and actions.
Object Permanence
Understanding objects still exist when hidden.
Example: Babies searching for hidden toys.
Preoperational Stage
Children use language but think egocentrically.
Egocentrism
Difficulty understanding another perspective.
Example: A child assuming everyone sees exactly what they see.
Concrete Operational Stage
Logical thinking develops.
Formal Operational Stage
Abstract thinking develops.
Example: Thinking about hypothetical situations.
2. Attachment
Strong emotional bond with caregivers.
Secure Attachment
Healthy trust and comfort.
3. Parenting Styles
Authoritative
Strict but supportive. Usually healthiest.
Authoritarian
Strict with little warmth.
Permissive
Warm but few rules.
BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION
A teenager exploring identity and future goals. → Erikson’s identity vs role confusion stage
Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality
Big Idea:
Motivation drives behavior, emotions affect actions, and personality shapes how people interact.
1. Motivation
Drive-Reduction Theory
People act to reduce discomfort.
Example: Eating when hungry.
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Basic needs come before higher goals.
Example: Someone struggling financially may focus on survival before self-esteem.
2. Emotion Theories
James-Lange Theory
Physical response first.
Example: Heart races THEN fear is felt.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotion and physical response happen together.
Schachter Two-Factor Theory
Emotion depends on physical arousal plus interpretation.
3. Personality
Trait Theory
Personality made of stable characteristics.
Big Five Traits
* openness
* conscientiousness
* extraversion
* agreeableness
* neuroticism
BIG AP EXAM CONNECTION
A student interpreting sweaty palms before a game as excitement. → Schachter two-factor theory
Unit 8: Clinical Psychology
Big Idea:
Psychological disorders affect thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
This unit asks: How are disorders identified and treated?
1. Anxiety Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Constant excessive worry.
Phobias
Irrational fears.
OCD
Obsessions and compulsions.
2. Mood Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Persistent sadness and loss of interest.
Bipolar Disorder
Extreme mood swings.
3. Schizophrenia
Disordered thinking and perception.
Hallucinations
False sensory experiences.
Delusions
False beliefs.
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