Sistemas Operativos - Conceptos Básicos y Estructura

DAY 24 Concentration

Conceptos Fundamentales de la Administración y Organismos Sociales

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Capítulo 7: Fibra Dietética - Un Concepto en Evolución

conceptual review - quiz1

Protección Radiológica: Definición de Conceptos

💧 CONCENTRATED vs DILUTE

Water, Mixtures, and Solution Concentrations

ACCT 2014 - Unit 1: Harmonization of Accounting Standards & The IASB Conceptual Framework

Cell Transport and Concentration Vocabulary

The Conceptual Framework of Financial Reporting | Ch 1 FAR 1

Anatomía Humana I - Conceptos y Términos Clave

dev bio lab conceptual-practical I

Energy Balance and Concentration Dynamics

Tema 1: Concepto, organización y membrana celular

Panadería Leudada - Conceptos e Ingredientes Básicos

Unité 3: C3: Concentration Massique, Concentration Molaire et Dissolution

Sociología Jurídica - Conceptos Fundamentales

A.p bio 🧪 UNIT 1 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE — TEST CRAM Q&A 🟣 TOPIC 1: BIOLOGY REVIEW & STATISTICS Experimental Design Q: What is the independent variable? A: The variable the scientist changes/manipulates. Q: What is the dependent variable? A: The variable that is measured/observed. Q: Easy way to remember independent vs. dependent? A: Independent = I change it. Dependent = data I collect. Q: In an experiment, fertilizer concentration is changed and plant height is measured. What is the independent variable? A: Fertilizer concentration. Q: What is the dependent variable? A: Plant height. Q: What are constants? A: Things kept the same for every experimental group. Q: What is a control group? A: A group used as a comparison/baseline. Q: What is a positive control? A: A group that should produce a known positive result. Q: What is a negative control? A: A group that should produce no response/result. ⸻ Data & Statistics Q: What is qualitative data? A: Descriptive data that isn’t measured numerically. Example: color, texture, smell. Q: What is quantitative data? A: Numerical/measurable data. Example: 15 cm, 20°C, 5 grams. Q: What is the mean? A: The average: add all values and divide by the number of values. Q: What is the median? A: The middle value when data is arranged from least to greatest. Q: What is the mode? A: The value that occurs most often. Q: What is the range? A: Highest − lowest. Q: What does standard deviation tell you? A: How spread out the data is around the mean. Q: Small standard deviation means what? A: Data points are close together/consistent. Q: Large standard deviation means what? A: Data points are more spread out/variable. Q: If Group A and Group B have similar means, but Group A has a much smaller standard deviation, what does that mean? A: Group A’s data is more consistent and clustered around the mean. Q: What is SEM? A: Standard error of the mean; it estimates how accurately the sample mean represents the population mean. Q: What does a small SEM mean? A: The mean is more precise/reliable. Q: What do error bars show? A: The amount of variation or uncertainty around a mean, depending on what the graph specifies. Q: What should you look for when reading graphs? A: Specific data points, trends, patterns, increases/decreases, and relationships between variables. ⸻ 💧 TOPIC 2: STRUCTURE OF WATER & HYDROGEN BONDING Q: Why is water polar? A: Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, so oxygen becomes partially negative and hydrogen becomes partially positive. Q: What does δ− mean? A: Partial negative charge. Q: What does δ+ mean? A: Partial positive charge. Q: What type of bond holds the H and O together inside one water molecule? A: Covalent bond. Q: What type of attraction occurs between different water molecules? A: Hydrogen bonds. Q: What causes water’s cohesion? A: Hydrogen bonding between water molecules. Q: What is cohesion? A: Water molecules sticking to other water molecules. Q: What is adhesion? A: Water sticking to other surfaces/materials. Q: What causes surface tension? A: Cohesion/hydrogen bonding between water molecules at the surface. Q: What is capillary action? A: Water moving upward through a narrow space because of cohesion + adhesion. Q: Why can water move upward through plants? A: Hydrogen bonding creates cohesion between water molecules, while adhesion helps water interact with the plant’s xylem walls, allowing capillary action. Q: Which interaction is primarily responsible for water cohesion? A: Hydrogen bonds. Q: What is a solute? A: The substance being dissolved. Q: What is a solvent? A: The substance that does the dissolving. Q: What is a solution? A: A solute + solvent mixture. ⭐ MUST KNOW: Polarity → hydrogen bonding → cohesion/adhesion → capillary action → water movement in plants ⸻ 🧬 TOPIC 2: ELEMENTS OF LIFE Q: Why is carbon so important to life? A: Carbon has 4 valence electrons, allowing it to form four stable covalent bonds and create many different structures. Q: Why can carbon create such a huge diversity of molecules? A: It can bond with itself and many other elements, creating chains, rings, branches, and complex structures. Q: What four major macromolecules are built from carbon? A: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Q: What element is especially important in amino acids and nitrogenous bases? A: Nitrogen. Q: What element is found in nucleic acids and certain lipids? A: Phosphorus. Functional Groups Q: What is a functional group? A: A group of atoms that gives an organic molecule specific chemical properties and behaviors. Q: What are the major functional groups you need to know? A: Hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, and phosphate. Q: What is a hydroxyl group? A: –OH Q: What is a carboxyl group? A: –COOH Q: What is an amino group? A: –NH₂ Q: What is a phosphate group? A: –PO₄ group. Q: What is a carbonyl group? A: A carbon double-bonded to oxygen: C=O. Q: What is a hydrocarbon? A: A molecule made only of carbon and hydrogen. ⸻ 🔗 TOPIC 3: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES Q: What is a monomer? A: A small building block that can join with others. Q: What is a polymer? A: A large molecule made from repeating monomers. Q: What are the four major biological macromolecules? A: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids. Q: What is dehydration synthesis? A: A process that joins monomers by forming a covalent bond and removing H₂O. Q: What is hydrolysis? A: A process that breaks covalent bonds by adding H₂O. 🧠 REMEMBER: Dehydration = take water OUT → build Hydrolysis = add water → break Q: Which process joins monomers to form a polymer? A: Dehydration synthesis. Q: Which process breaks polymers apart? A: Hydrolysis. Q: What happens to water during dehydration synthesis? A: Water is removed/released. Q: What happens to water during hydrolysis? A: Water is added. ⸻ 🍞 TOPIC 4: PROPERTIES OF BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES Carbohydrates Q: What is a monosaccharide? A: A single sugar monomer. Q: What is a polysaccharide? A: A carbohydrate polymer made of many sugar units. Q: What is starch used for? A: Energy storage in plants. Q: What is glycogen used for? A: Energy storage in animals. Q: What is cellulose used for? A: Structural support in plant cell walls. ⸻ Proteins Q: What are proteins made of? A: Amino acids. Q: What is the monomer of a protein? A: Amino acid. Q: What part of an amino acid varies between amino acids? A: The R group. Q: Why are R groups important? A: Their different properties affect how a protein folds and functions. ⸻ Lipids Q: Are lipids generally polar or nonpolar? A: Mostly nonpolar/hydrophobic. Q: What does hydrophobic mean? A: Water-fearing; doesn’t mix well with water. Q: What does hydrophilic mean? A: Water-loving; interacts with water. Q: What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids? A: Saturated = no C=C double bonds. Unsaturated = one or more C=C double bonds. Q: Which fatty acid has more bends/kinks? A: Unsaturated fatty acid. Q: Why do unsaturated fatty acids have kinks? A: Their double bonds bend the carbon chain. ⸻ Phospholipids Q: What two types of regions does a phospholipid have? A: A polar hydrophilic head and nonpolar hydrophobic tails. Q: Why are phospholipids important in cells? A: They form the cell membrane bilayer. Q: Why do phospholipids form a bilayer? A: The hydrophilic heads face the watery environments while the hydrophobic tails face inward away from water. ⸻ Nucleic Acids Q: What do nucleic acids do? A: They store and transmit biological information. Q: What is the monomer of nucleic acids? A: Nucleotide. Q: What are nucleotides made of? A: A 5-carbon sugar + phosphate group + nitrogenous base. ⸻ 🧩 TOPIC 5: STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES Protein Structure Q: What determines a protein’s primary structure? A: The sequence of amino acids. Q: What is secondary protein structure? A: Local folding into structures such as alpha helices and beta sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Q: What is tertiary structure? A: The overall 3D shape of one polypeptide. Q: What is quaternary structure? A: Multiple polypeptide chains/subunits working together. ⭐ KNOW THIS ORDER: Primary → Secondary → Tertiary → Quaternary Q: Why can changing one amino acid affect protein function? A: It can change interactions between amino acids, which can change the protein’s shape, potentially changing its function. Q: What is denaturation? A: When a protein loses its normal shape, causing it to lose or reduce its function. Q: What can cause protein denaturation? A: Things such as high temperature or extreme pH. ⸻ DNA Structure Q: What does antiparallel mean? A: The two DNA strands run in opposite directions: one 5’ → 3’ and the other 3’ → 5’. Q: Why is DNA directionality important? A: DNA strands have specific 5’ and 3’ ends, which determines how they are read and copied. ⸻ Carbohydrate Structure Q: Why can two carbohydrates made from similar sugar monomers have different functions? A: Their monomers can have different arrangements, bonding, branching, and structures, which changes their properties and functions. Q: Example of this? A: Starch and cellulose are both made from glucose, but their different bonding/arrangements give them different functions. ⸻ 🧬 TOPIC 6: NUCLEIC ACIDS Q: What are the three parts of a nucleotide? A: 5-carbon sugar + phosphate group + nitrogenous base. Q: What sugar is found in DNA? A: Deoxyribose. Q: What sugar is found in RNA? A: Ribose. Q: What nitrogenous base is found in DNA but not RNA? A: Thymine (T). Q: What nitrogenous base is found in RNA instead of thymine? A: Uracil (U). Q: Is DNA usually single- or double-stranded? A: Double-stranded. Q: Is RNA usually single- or double-stranded? A: Single-stranded. Q: What does DNA store? A: Genetic/biological information. Q: What connects nucleotides together? A: Covalent bonds form the sugar-phosphate backbone. ⸻ 🧬 Base Pairing Q: What does A pair with in DNA? A: T Q: What does T pair with? A: A Q: What does C pair with? A: G Q: What does G pair with? A: C RNA: A ↔ U C ↔ G Q: If one DNA strand is 5’-ACGTAC-3’, what is the complementary strand? A: 3’-TGCATG-5’ Q: Why is it written 3’ → 5’? A: Because DNA strands are antiparallel. ⸻ 🔥 UNIT 1 BIG CONNECTIONS — YOUR TEACHER WILL LOVE THESE Q: Explain the water connection. A: Water’s polarity causes hydrogen bonding, which produces properties like cohesion and adhesion that are important for biological functions such as water movement through plants. Q: Explain the carbon connection. A: Carbon’s four valence electrons allow it to form many covalent bonds, creating the huge diversity of biological molecules. Q: Explain the macromolecule connection. A: Monomers join → polymers/macromolecules form → their structure determines their properties and function. Q: Explain the protein connection. A: Amino acid sequence → protein shape → protein function. Q: Explain the DNA connection. A: Nucleotide sequence → biological/genetic information. Q: Explain the experiment connection. A: Experimental design → data → analysis → evidence → biological conclusion. ⸻ 🚨 15 QUESTIONS YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO ANSWER WITHOUT LOOKING What is the independent variable?     → What you change. What is the dependent variable?     → What you measure. Small standard deviation means…?     → Data is consistent/close together. Why is water polar?     → Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. What causes cohesion?     → Hydrogen bonding. What causes capillary action?     → Cohesion + adhesion. Why is carbon so versatile?     → Four valence electrons. What joins monomers?     → Dehydration synthesis. What breaks polymers?     → Hydrolysis. Protein monomer?     → Amino acid. Nucleic acid monomer?     → Nucleotide. Unsaturated fatty acids have what?     → Double bonds and kinks. What determines protein shape?     → Amino acid sequence/interactions. DNA sugar/base?     → Deoxyribose + thymine. DNA strands are…?     → Double-stranded and antiparallel. 🧠 LAST-MINUTE MEMORY CHAIN Memorize this exact chain: Water: POLAR → H-BONDS → COHESION/ADHESION → CAPILLARY ACTION Macromolecules: MONOMER → DEHYDRATION → POLYMER Breaking: POLYMER → HYDROLYSIS → MONOMERS Protein: AMINO ACID SEQUENCE → SHAPE → FUNCTION DNA: NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE → INFORMATION Experiment: INDEPENDENT → DEPENDENT → DATA → EVIDENCE → CONCLUSION