Results for "Bicarbonate"

Module 1: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry - Part 4.4 - Compounds - Bicarbonates, Silicates, Cyanides/Nitriles, Others

Please wait outside until I let you in, and put all your stuff at the back just like we've done about 20 times already this semester. Okay? Or this semester and last, and you will be just fine. Now your lecture exam too is 90 marks big. It is 90 multiple choice questions. Okay. It is going to be on cardiovascular disorders, urinary system, fluid balance, Okay. So let's start talking about them. First of all, okay, you need to know the difference between a myocardial infarct, ischemic attack, a congestive heart failure, and angina pectorals. You need to know what a low level inflammatory response that develops over time where the endothelium is damaged due to the aging or prolonged hypertension, where LDLs accumulate, and the endothelium is repaired with collagen is called. That might take you a long time to read. Okay? But it is a good question. Okay? You need to know now be really, really clear on these. Okay? You absolutely need to know the difference between right ventricular hypertrophy and left ventricular hypertrophy and what they cause. Because there's two questions on here, and so far, this one hasn't been done very well. Okay? Make sure you understand what right ventricular hypertrophy leads to and you understand what left ventricular hypertrophy leads to. Now the original term, congestive heart failure, that refers to left ventricular hypertrophy leading to backup in the lungs. K? You need to know what arteries or vessels are used in bypass surgery. You need to know what a mini stroke is. Okay? You need to know the difference between thrombus and ballast occlusion and arthroma. You need to know what is a restriction in blood supply generally due to factors in the blood vessels with resultant damage or dysfunction of tissue. You need to know, what are the consequences of an aging cardiovascular system. And then I I've got a matching question for you. You need to match the basic function of the proximal convoluted tubule, the glomerulus, and the peri colic duct. And then two of my favorite questions. Are you ready? Okay. You have to find out which of the following is the best explanation for why the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule contain so many microclonary. Oh, isn't that lovely? Okay. And then the other one you need to know is you need to find the best explanation for the microvilli on the apical surface of the proximal convoluted tubules. So don't get that one wrong because we've talked about microvilli about a bazillion times. Okay? This picture is gonna be on there, folks. Okay? This is the picture of the of the nephron from your textbook. Okay. You need to label things like glomerulus glomerulus afferent arteriole collecting duct nephron move. Okay. Where do you find the granular cells? Okay. The difference between the medulla and the cortex. Make sure you know all of those things. I'll read you this one. This is a good question too. Hydrostatic pressure is the primary driving force of plasma through the filtration membrane into the capsular space. All the publicly following statements reflects why hydrostatic pressure is so high in the glomerular capillaries. Select the one statement that does not explain the high pressure within the glomerular capillaries. So you need to know why glomerular capillary pressure is higher than the rest of the capillaries in the body. You need to know how or why cells or transport proteins are prevented from moving through how yeah. What drives reabsorption of organic nutrients in the proximal condylated tubule? Who drives thus? You need to know the mechanism that establishes the medullary osmotic gradient the The functional and structural unit of the kidneys is what? The g force pushing the blood and solids out of the blood across the filtration membrane is what? Okay. The macular densities cells do what? Function in angiotensin two is to do what? What is, specific gravity or density? Okay. If you talk about the specific gravity or density of urine, how is it different from water? You need to actually, this is just one question, but it should be a pretty simple one. Okay? You need to place the following and correct sequence from the formation of a drop of urine to its elimination of the body. And so you have to go through from well, I'll just read it to you. Major calyx, minor calyx, nephron, urethra, ureter, and collecting that. So you need to put those in order from start to finish. Okay? What would happen if the capsular hydrostatic pressure were increased above normal? You need to know what would happen. Reabsorption of bilevels of glucose and amino acids in the filtrate is accomplished. The 44 more. Okay. So you need to match to their definition. All of your hypo and hypers. Make sure you have some under control. Okay? And then you need to match possible causes. So there's possible causes of respiratory alkalosis, metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and respiratory acidosis. Respiratory alkalosis, metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and respiratory acidosis. There are possible causes for those four things. You need to match the disorder to the cause. Okay? And then you need to know, the body's motor volume is mostly tied to the level of then I have a couple of clinical correlation questions for you, but they are multiple choice this time. So something happened to Jane. You have to tell me what's happening to Jane. Okay? Now whereas sodium is mainly found in the extracellular fluid, most is found in intracellular systems are. Okay. Which of the following is not a likely source of hydrogen ions in blood plasma, so there's a few types in the tablets, so make sure you know which ones are going to produce acids and which ones aren't. And then Annie had something happen to her as well. Across capillary walls is what? Regulation of potassium balance is what? Now Dave Dave did something silly. Okay? Dave ran a marathon. Okay? And then Dave did something even more silly afterwards. I want you to tell me what happened to Dave. And in addition to that, Nancy is having a panic attack. So I want you to tell me what's happening to Nancy in terms of respiratory aesophosis and respiratory aldosterone. Okay. If thyroid and parathyroid glands were surgically removed, which of the following would go out of balance without replacement therapy? Falling arterial blood pressure holds which? An illness, Doug. Doug has severe diarrhea. Okay. And, is accompanying the loss of bicarbonate or secretions. So how is Doug gonna compensate for that for Doug? Okay. You need to know what the medical term for kidney stones is. You need to know what happens, or what could cause the passage of proteins, red blood cells, and white blood cells into the urine. You need to know how to solve prostatic enlargement, and, you need to know what the presence of white blood cells in urine is called and what is causing it. Okay? And then there's a picture of the lymphatic of the lymph node. Okay. You need to label the lymph node picture. And then you there is going to be a matching question on lymphatic structures, so you need to know what happens in the spleen, the lymph nodes, the thoracic duct, the lymph, and the pyre patches. There's a list, a small short list. Okay? So in other words, you're going to need to know what is classified as a lymphoid organ and what does not. Okay? So make sure you know what your lymphoid organs are. You need to know the pathway of lymph. So it starts in lymph capillaries. Where does it end? Make sure you know all the steps along the way. And then you need to know the functions of the spleen. What did what does the spleen do? And that is it for an example

Bicarbonate Buffer System

Digestion Notes (Biology 12) I. Introduction/Overview • Digestion: Breakdown of food into small, soluble molecules • Occurs physically and chemically • Absorption: The process of taking specific compounds into the body • Elimination: Expulsion of materials not absorbed into the body • Excretion: Removal of waste from metabolic processes II. Location of Parts and Function A. Teeth • Type of teeth depends on diet: • Carnivores: Sharp teeth for grasping prey and severing meat • Herbivores: Flat teeth for crushing plant fibers • Omnivores: A combination of tooth types for eating both meat and plants • Structure: • Enamel: Hard outer layer • Dentin: Bony layer under enamel • Pulp: Living part of the tooth (contains nerves and blood vessels) • Teeth are embedded in sockets in the jaw B. Tongue • Functions: • Taste: Detects salt, sour, sweet, and bitter flavors • Positioning food for chewing C. Salivary Glands • Three pairs: • Parotid (side of face; swells with mumps) • Sublingual (under tongue) • Submandibular (lower jaw) • Produce saliva, which contains enzymes for digestion D. Palates • Located at the top of the mouth • Hard palate: Front, separates the mouth from the nasal cavity • Soft palate: Back, ends in the uvula E. Pharynx • Area between mouth and esophagus • Used for both breathing and eating • Epiglottis: Closes over the glottis when swallowing to prevent choking F. Esophagus • Muscular tube that pushes food into the stomach using peristalsis • Composed of five tissue layers: 1. Mucosa (epithelial lining) 2. Submucosa (connective tissue) 3. Muscularis (two muscle layers: circular and longitudinal) 4. Serosa (outer epithelial layer; secretes fluid for lubrication) G. Cardiac Sphincter • Muscle at the junction of the esophagus and stomach • Opens to allow food into the stomach H. Stomach • J-shaped organ, located left of the body’s center • Capacity: About 1 liter • Inner lining contains gastric glands: • Parietal cells → Produce HCl • Chief cells → Produce pepsinogen, activated by HCl into pepsin • Epithelial cells → Produce mucus (protects stomach lining) • Functions: • Storage of food (empties in 2-6 hours) • Digestion using pepsin and salivary amylase • Absorption of water, ethanol • Regulation of pepsin production by the hormone gastrin I. Pyloric Sphincter • Muscle at the junction of the stomach and small intestine • Opens to allow chyme (partially digested food) into the small intestine J. Small Intestine • Length: ~ 3 meters (10 feet) • Highly convoluted to increase surface area for absorption • Interior folds covered with villi (tiny projections that increase surface area) • Divided into three parts: 1. Duodenum (first 25 cm): Produces lactase, peptidase, maltase, nuclease 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum • Functions: • Completes digestion • Absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream K. Liver • Largest organ in the body • Monitors blood composition via the hepatic portal vein L. Pancreas • Produces pancreatic juice (digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid) • Produces insulin (regulates blood glucose) M. Ileo-Caecal Opening • Joins the small intestine to the large intestine N. Caecum • Blind pouch at the end of the small intestine • No function in humans (vestigial), but in herbivores, it helps digest cellulose O. Large Intestine • Parts: 1. Ascending colon 2. Transverse colon 3. Descending colon 4. Rectum (stores feces) 5. Anus (controls feces release) • Functions: • Reabsorbs water (~95% of 10L daily intake) • Forms feces • Produces vitamins B and K using E. coli bacteria III. Digestive Enzymes Enzyme Source pH Digested Food Product Salivary Amylase Salivary Glands 7 Starch Maltose Pepsin Stomach 2 Protein Peptides Pancreatic Amylase Pancreas Basic Starch Maltose Trypsin Pancreas Basic Protein Peptides Lipase Pancreas Basic Fat Glycerol & Fatty Acids Peptidases Small Intestine Basic Peptides Amino Acids Maltase Small Intestine Basic Maltose Glucose Nuclease Pancreas Basic DNA/RNA Nucleotides IV. Swallowing and Peristalsis • Swallowing: Food forms a bolus (food ball) and is moved down the esophagus • Peristalsis: Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle that push food through the digestive tract V. The 7 Functions of the Liver 1. Detoxifies harmful substances (e.g., alcohol) 2. Stores glucose as glycogen 3. Destroys old red blood cells (recycling heme into bile) 4. Produces urea from amino acid breakdown 5. Makes blood proteins 6. Stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, K 7. Converts amino acids to glucose if needed (gluconeogenesis) VI. Digestive Juices & Hormones Gastric Juice (Stomach) • Contains HCl, pepsinogen (activated into pepsin), and mucus • Helps digest proteins into peptides Pancreatic Juice • Contains sodium bicarbonate (neutralizes acid) • Enzymes: Pancreatic amylase, trypsin, lipase, nuclease Bile (Liver & Gallbladder) • Breaks down fats into small droplets for lipase to act on VII. Control of Digestive Gland Secretions • Nervous Reflex: Presence of food triggers digestion • Conditioned Reflex: External stimuli (e.g

Chapter 9 – Skeletal Muscles 1. Connective Tissue Surrounding a Skeletal Muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds the entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers. 2. Histology and Function of Sarcomeres: • Histology: Sarcomeres are the structural and functional units of skeletal muscles, composed of repeating units between two Z-lines. • Function: They enable muscle contraction through the sliding filament mechanism. 3. Main Components: • Thin Filaments: Actin, tropomyosin, and troponin. • Thick Filaments: Myosin. 4. Function of Transverse Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: • Transverse Tubules (T-tubules): Transmit action potentials deep into the muscle fiber. • Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores and releases calcium ions for muscle contraction. 5. Motor Unit: A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. 6. Neuromuscular Junction: The synapse where a motor neuron meets a muscle fiber, allowing for signal transmission. 7. Synapse: A junction between two neurons or a neuron and a muscle cell where communication occurs. 8. Actions of Acetylcholine (ACh): • Initiates muscle contraction by binding to receptors on the sarcolemma. • Degraded by: Acetylcholinesterase. 9. Neurotransmitter Released at Motor Axon Terminals: Acetylcholine. 10. Steps in Excitation-Contraction Coupling: • Action potential travels along sarcolemma. • Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. • Calcium binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move, exposing binding sites on actin. • Myosin heads form cross-bridges and initiate contraction. 11. Order of Muscle Fiber Contraction: • Action potential → Calcium release → Cross-bridge formation → Power stroke → ATP binding → Cross-bridge detachment. 12. Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: • Sliding filament theory: Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other. 13. Interaction of Actin, Myosin, and Calcium: • Calcium binds to troponin, shifting tropomyosin to expose myosin-binding sites on actin, enabling cross-bridge cycling. 14. Cross-Bridges: Myosin heads that bind to actin during contraction. 15. Contraction Types: • Isotonic: Muscle length changes. • Eccentric: Muscle lengthens under tension. • Isometric: Muscle tension without length change. • Concentric: Muscle shortens under tension. 16. Force of Muscle Contraction: • Controlled by motor unit recruitment. • Partial Tetany: Incomplete relaxation. • Fused Tetany: Sustained contraction without relaxation. 17. Bones and Muscles as Levers: • Fulcrum: Pivot point of the lever. 18. Synergist and Antagonist: • Synergist: Assists the primary mover. • Antagonist: Opposes the primary mover. 19. Muscle Atrophy: Wasting of muscle due to disuse or disease. 20. Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness by targeting ACh receptors. 21. Linea Alba: A fibrous structure running down the midline of the abdomen. 22. Origin, Insertion, and Actions of Specific Muscles: (Let me know which specific ones you’d like to focus on.) Chapter 17 – Digestive System 1. Alimentary Canal: A continuous muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus. 2. Functions of the Digestive System: • Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. 3. Breakdown and Absorption: • Carbohydrates: Begin in the mouth (amylase). • Proteins: Start in the stomach (pepsin). • Fats: Start in the small intestine (lipase, bile). 4. Layers of Alimentary Canal Walls: • Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa. 5. Accessory Organs: • Liver, pancreas, gallbladder. 6. Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Effects: • Sympathetic: Decreases digestion. • Parasympathetic: Enhances digestion. 7. Hormones: • Gastrin: Stimulates gastric juice secretion. • Cholecystokinin (CCK): Stimulates bile and pancreatic juice. • Secretin: Stimulates bicarbonate secretion. 8. Peristalsis vs. Segmentation: • Peristalsis: Wave-like contractions. • Segmentation: Mixing movements. 9. Epiglottis Function: Prevents food from entering the trachea. 10. Heartburn: Caused by stomach acid reflux into the esophagus. 11. Stomach Parts: Fundus, body, pylorus. 12. Secretions: • Parietal Cells: Hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor. • Chief Cells: Pepsinogen. 13. Digestive Enzymes and Substances: • Amylase: Breaks down starch. • Pepsin: Digests proteins. • Trypsin: Protein digestion. • Lipase: Fat digestion. • Bile Salts: Emulsify fats. 14. Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas Functions: • Liver: Produces bile. • Gallbladder: Stores bile. • Pancreas: Produces enzymes and bicarbonate. 15. Anatomy of Bile Ducts: • Common hepatic, cystic, and pancreatic ducts form the common bile duct. 16. Functions of Large Intestine: • Absorption of water, vitamin production, and feces formation. 17. Defecation Reflex: Triggered by rectal wall distension. Chapter 18 – Nutrition 1. Excess Glucose Storage: As glycogen in the liver and muscles. 2. Tissue Requiring Glucose: Nervous tissue (brain). 3. Triglyceride Components: Glycerol and three fatty acids. 4. Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body

CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 (carbonic acid) <--> H + HCO3 (bicarbonate)

Chem- Determination of Bicarbonate (final)

Sodium Bicarbonate

Sodium Bicarbonate

BICARBONATE

Module 1: Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry - Part 4.4 - Compounds - Bicarbonates, Silicates, Cyanides/Nitriles, Others

Pharmacology Basics a. What types of assessments and evaluations are important to do before and after giving a medication? -Vital signs -Modified head to toe exam -Pt allergies -Labs - Med history -Speci drug data -Pt understand of drugs - Age related concerns -Liver failure? Malabsorption syndrome? Renal disease? -Pt home drugs? - When intended effect will happen - Urine outpit - Lung sounds - Monitoring (desired outcome obtained? What was drug response? Any adverse effects? Any toxic effects?) b. What are the 9 rights you must consider before giving a medication? - Right pt - Right drug - Right dose - Right route - Right time - Right indication - Right documentation - Right response - Right to refuse c. What drugs are considered to be controlled substances and why? - Schedule 1-5 drugs due to the high abuse potential d. What are black box warnings? - Highest safety-related warning for meds that are assigned by FDA. This warning is intended to bring the consumer and the nurses attention to the major risk of the drug. e. Why do you have to know the generic name of a drug? - This is the name used on the NCLEX and the DR can call/prescribe it by either name. f. What is Pharmaceutics? - Developing a chemical to be used as a drug. g. What are enteral drugs? - PO drugs, it has to pass through intestines/ be absorbed in GI tract h. What are parenteral drugs? -Drug given by injection (passing outside the intestines) i. What is Pharmacokinetics? - Study of what happens to the drug while it is in the body j. Why do we consider the absorption of the drug? - Absorption affects the speed and concentration at which a drug may arrive at its desired location of effectg - k. What factors affect the absorption of a drug? - CYP450= enzyme in liver responsible for breaking down drugs and making them bioavailable l. What is the First Pass phenomenon? m. Which route of administration will be absorbed fastest and slowest? - IV/ parentral drugs are absorbed faster. - n. Why do we consider the distribution of the drug? • -Distribution describes how a substance is spread throughout the body. To be effective, a medication must reach its designated compartmental destination, described by the volume of distribution, and not be protein-bound in order to be active. o. What factors affect the distribution of a drug? - biochemical properties of the drug as well as the physiology of the individual taking that medication, ; protein bound drugs, if it has protein bound to it, it makes it harder to reach the site. p. What is a drug to drug interaction and why does this occur? - Drug- drug interaction occurs when taking more than one medication together. q. What is the importance of drug metabolism? - Metabolism changed drug to inactive metabolite to more soluble form, to a more potent active metabolite. Affecting the liver. r. What are the cytochrome P-450 enzymes and why are they so important to medication administration? - This is an active enzyme used to break down the drug; there are multiple enzymes used to break down drugs by PY450 is common; if that enzyme is already in use for a drug the enzyme may not be effective for another drug taken at the same time requiring the action of that enzyme. s. What organ is responsible for most drug metabolism? - Liver t. What labs do we monitor to make sure that organ is not damaged from metabolizing the drugs? - Liver labs u. What factors affect the metabolism of drugs? - The enzymes. Certain enzymes might make a drug more effective potentially causing toxicity and some enzymes can impede a drugs effectiveness. v. What organ is most frequently responsible for excretion of drugs? - Kidneys w. What labs do we monitor to make sure that organ is not damaged excreting the drugs? -Kidney function x. What is the onset of action of a drug? - Time required for drug to take effect y. What is the peak level of a drug? - Time required for drug to reach its maximum therapeutic response. z. What is the half-life of a drug - Time required for 50% of the drug to be eliminated from the body. aa. What is the duration of action of a drug? - Length of time that drug concentration is sufficient enough to elicit a therapeutic response. bb. How do these time factors affect the way we nurses administer and evaluate drug affects? - If a drug has a long half-life then we have to delay or put more time in between giving another dose. cc. What are the common ways that drugs exert their actions? - Through receptors, by effecting enzymes, nonselective interactions (will bind to multiple receptors because we haven’t been able to target just the one area which is why we have side effects) dd. What is acute drug therapy used for? - Antibiotics, given for a short amount of time to get rid of something specific ee. What is maintenance drug therapy used for? - BP meds, taken for a long time to maintain a function ff. What is palliative drug therapy used for? - Given to make someone more comfortable at end of life. gg. What is prophylactic drug therapy used for? - Given to prevent something hh. What are adverse effects or adverse reactions to drugs and why are they important for nurses to recognize? - Adverse effects are basically negative effects or responses to the drug from external sources; ie grapefruit garlic don’t react well with certain meds ii. What is important to consider when giving a drug to a pregnant woman? - What trimester pt is in and category drug jj. What is important to consider when giving a drug to a pediatric patient? - Pt weight kk. What is important to consider when giving a drug to a geriatric patient? - Polypharmy, other drugs taken, physiologic issues, financial issues ll. Why are drugs categorized related to pregnancy? - To determine the potential effects to the fetus mm. What are some cultural or genetic factors you must consider when administering drugs? - Speak different languages, may use herbal remedies that you need to ask about, how thee culture handles illness, be considerate of religious belief because some could affect care , how they feel about the treatment nn. Why is it important to educate patients about their prescribed medications? - So they will know what is happening and how it is happening oo. What are some factors that will improve the patient’s ability to learn about their medications? - Pt age, language barrier, cognitive abilities, literacy level, emotional status, environment at home, barriers of learning, any physical/psych/cognitive limitations pp. What are the different routes of medication administration? - PO, IM, IV, subcutaneous, topical, inhalation, nebulized, rectal, sublingual, intrathecal (epidural/spinal, transdermal qq. Why are drugs ordered to be administered using different routes? - Maybe poor liver, can’t swallow, needs to act quicker rr. What are common causes of drug administration errors? - Abbreviation, misinterpretation, drugs with similar spelling or pronunciation, staff nurse “work around”, high alert medication have more sever consequences w. error, not doing med reconciliation w/ new pt, given to wrong pt, wrong route and time ss. How can we prevent drug administration errors? - 3 checks of the 9 routes, limit telephone orders, multiple systems of checks and balances, be aware of look alike- sound alike drugs, any doubt CALL THE PHARMACIST. tt. What should you do if you make a medication administration error? - Be honest, follow the institutions policies and procedure, complete incident report, stay with pt to monitor for adverse reaction, document accurately thoroughly and objectively include info 2. Pain Medications a. Opioids i. How do you assess pain? - Onset - Location - Duration - Character - Aggravating/ - Relieving Factors - Timing - Severity ii. What are the different types of pain? iii. What are the receptors in the central nervous system that are responsible for pain transmission? -Mu, kappa, and delta -Mu has most side effects/ targeted effects iv. What does an agonist drug do in the body? -Acute, chronic, somatic, vascular, superficial, deep, visceral, neuropathic, referred, phantom, and cancer pain -Binds to receptor, alters function of receptor, and triggers physiologic response for that receptor. (ex: opiates) v. What does an antagonist drug do in the body? - Binds to receptor, but fails to activate physiologic response, vi. What happens when an opioid agonist binds to a Mu receptor? - You get all the effects of the Mu receptor (gi motility, euphoria, respiratory depression, etc) lots of side effects vii. What are the generic names of the frequently prescribed opioids? - Morphine and Fentanyl viii. What is drug potency? - How much drug is needed to produce the effect you need ix. What are the indications for the use of opioids? - Moderate to severe pain, cough suppression, anti diarrhea, local anesthesia, x. What are the adverse reactions that are frequently seen with the use of opioids? - Respiratory depression, CNS depression (sedation, mental clouding, coma), constipation, n/v, itching, rash, wheal formation, orthostatic hypotension, - Zofran reduces nausea when taking opiates xi. When evaluating the effects of an opioid, what body system must the nurse assess? - Respiratory and cardiac xii. What are the signs and symptoms of opioid overdose or toxicity? - Respiratory depression, CNS depression (sedation, mental clouding, coma), miosis xiii. What should the nurse do if there is a suspected opioid overdose? - Notify provider, use naloxone (antagonist for opiate) xiv. What does it mean to be opioid naïve? - First time user xv. What is drug tolerance and how does it affect a patient? - Larger dose is required to produce the same response, xvi. What is drug dependance and how does it affect a patient? - If you take the drug away they will freak out. xvii. What education should you provide to a patient taking an opioid? - Don’t increase your dose without talking to your doctor - Don’t stop abruptly - Don’t crush or chew ER or controlled release tablets - Can cause drowsiness, don’t partake in hazardous activities while using med - If become light headed or dizzy, sit down; change position slowly - Don’t drink alcohol or other CNS depressants while taking opiods xviii. When is the onset of action of morphine? - 5-10minutes xix. When is the peak action of morphine? Onset : 5-10 Peak: 30 minutes xx. How do we give morphine in the hospital? - IV, PO xxi. How quickly do you push IV drugs? - Slow push xxii. What are appropriate indications (what is it used for) for the use of Fentanyl? - Chronic pain, xxiii. What education should you provide to a patient who has a prescription for a Fentanyl patch? - Shave area and clean, don’t apply heat, flush down toilet, remove old patch first, keep away from children, change patch q72hrs, periodically check that oatch has not fallen off xxiv. What is Naloxone used for? - Opioid antagonist xxv. How should you educate a person or the family of a person that might need to use Naloxone? - After giving it to the step back, call provider/911, be prepared to give second dose if they relapse b. NSAIDS i. What are the main classes of NSAIDS? - Salicylate ( Asprin_ ) ii. What are the three main indications for NSAIDS? - Pain/ fever/ inflammation iii. How do NSAIDs work? - Blocks COX 1&2 enzymes - COX 2 is given for arthritis and causes less GI upset iv. What is the difference between “Protective Prostaglandins” and “Pathologic Prostaglandins”? - Protective goes through GI system (saves liver and kidney) by vaso constricting of dilating, increase clotting factors, v. What are the names of 9 different NSAID drugs? - Aspirin - Diflunisal - Indomethacin - Ketorolac (Toradol) - Diclofenac (Voltaren) - Celecoxib(Celebrex - Ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil) - Naproxen (Aleve) - Oxaprozin (Daypro) - Acetic acid derivatives - Cox 2 - Enclic acid derivatives - Proprionic acid derivatives (Ibuprofen/ Naproxen vi. What are 3 major contraindications for using NSAIDs? - Never in 3rd trimester of pregnancy - Not to be given to pts going to surgery (stop one week prior) - ASA or salicylates not to be given to children with viral illness or fever ages 4-12 vii. What is the major adverse effect that nurses should monitor for in patients taking NSAIDs? - GI Bleed - Reyes Syndrome - Acute renal failure viii. What is Reyes Syndrome and why is understanding this syndrome important? -brain swell and your liver lose function after a viral illness or infection like flu or chickenpox. Common among children who take aspirin to treat symptoms during a viral infection or illness - Don’t give children under 12 asprin ix. What is the Black Box Warning for NSAIDs? - Be aware that patient may be at increased risk for CV events, GI bleed, renal insufficiency; monitor accordingly, don’t give to 3rd trimester x. What are drugs and herbs that will interact with NSAIDs? - Garlic (increases bleeding), fish oil, ginger ginko, feverfew, alcohol, anticoagulants, ulcerogenic drugs, diuretics, lithium xi. What are important considerations for enteric coated or sustain released pills? - Don’t crush or chew xii. What are important patient education points the nurse should provide to patients taking NSAIDs? -don’t crush or chew, take with meal xiii. What is the most common reason a patient will take 81 mg of aspirin? - Cardiovascular issues, preventing thrombosis xiv. What are the signs and symptoms of aspirin toxicity in adults? - Tinnitus (ringing in ears), hearing loss xv. What are the signs and symptoms of aspirin toxicity in children? - Dizziness, increased breathing, coma, confusion, tachypnea xvi. What treatment should the nurse expect to be used for patients with aspirin toxicity? - xvii. What is Ketorolac? - xviii. How long should a patient be taking Ketorolac? - Can’t take for more than 5 days xix. What are common indications for Ketorolac? - Post op surgery/ pain control xx. How is Celecoxib different than other NSAIDS? -Blocks COX 2 and has more anti inflammatory properties, used for joint pains xxi. What are the indications for Acetaminophen use? - Preferred antipyretic med for children and adolescents due to Reye’s Syndrome xxii. What patients should be careful when using Acetaminophen? xxiii. What are the potential adverse effects of Acetaminophen? - N/V, liver toxicity xxiv. What is the antidote for Acetaminophen toxicity? - Acetylcysteine (Give within 10 hours of overdose) xxv. What is the recommended daily dose for Acetaminophen? -3,000mg xxvi. What is the recommended daily dose of Acetaminophen for patients with liver disease? - Less than 2,000 xxvii. What is Tramadol? - Used for seizures and constipation, moderatre to severe pain (adverse effects similar to opiods, no more than 400mg per day xxviii. What are the most common indications for the use of Tramadol? - Alleviate pain xxix. What are the names of 3 drugs used to treat Gout? - NSAIDS - Allopurinol - Colchicine xxx. What is Allopurinol and how does it work to treat gout? - Purine inhibitor, maintenance for gout xxxi. What are potential adverse effects of Allopurinol? - Steven Johnson Syndrom, flu like symptom, xxxii. What is Steven Johnson Syndrome? - eruption of mucous membrane leading to bleed out xxxiii. What is Colchicine and how does it work to treat gout? - NSAID xxxiv. What are potential adverse effects of Colchicine? - Don’t give to pregnant in 3rd trimester, GI/GU bleed, Drugs Used for Anesthesia a. What is the goal of Balanced General anesthesia? - b. What are the classes of drugs used in Balanced General anesthesia? - Benzo, analgesics, anasthetics, muscle relaxants c. What are 3 IV general anesthetics? - Dexmedetomidine - Ketamine - IV - Propofol d. What are 3 inhaled general anesthetics? - Sevoflurane - Suprane - Nitrous oxide e. What is malignant hyperthermia? - disease that causes a fast rise in body temperature and severe muscle contractions when someone receives general anesthesia with one or more of the following drugs: halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane or succinylcholine f. What are the signs and symptoms of malignant hyperthermia? - Cramping, seizure, lockjaw, increase temperature, sweating g. What drug should be given if a patient experiences malignant hyperthermia? - Dantrolene (2mg/kg) repeat every 5mins till stable h. What are other nursing interventions that are useful in patients who have malignant hyperthermia? - Chill them, hydrate, critical care meds i. What is Moderate sedation? - Medication that numbs them, but they are awake and alert. j. What are neuromuscular blocking drugs use for? - Muscle relaxant k. What is the name of a neuromuscular blocking drug used in surgery? - succinylcholine l. What is the black box warning for neuromuscular blocking drugs? -cardiac arrest -arrythmia m. What is local anesthesia? - Targeted to numb just that area. n. What is the most commonly used local anesthetic? - Lidocaine - Procaine - Bupivacaine o. What is Local Anesthetic Systemic Toxicity and how does it occur? - Local anestheic doesn’t leave spot, prolonged numbess; too much of the anesthetic. p. What is a spinal headache? - When anesthetic goes into blood stream, cause change in pressure of cebreal spinal fluid, increase ICP, (Pt needs to lay don flat on their back for 5 minutes - q. Why is Epinephrine added to Lidocaine for local anesthesia? - To control bleeding SALYSISM is aspirin poisoning, treat with bicarbonate

CC2 - Electrolytes (Intro-Bicarbonate) (copy)

CC2 - Electrolytes (Intro-Bicarbonate)

EMS Medication: Sodium Bicarbonate

Organic Chemistry – branch of chemistry which deals with study of carbon containing compounds their properties , composition, structure , reactions and preparations. Organic compounds – are carbon containing compounds with the exception of carbon dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonate Inorganic Chemistry – branch of chemistry which deals with the study of all elements and compounds other than organic compounds Comparison of the properties of most Organic and Inorganic compounds Properties Organic Inorganic Flammable Yes No Melting point Low High Boiling point Low Hogh Solubility in water Insoluble Soluble Solubility in non polar solvent Soluble Insoluble Type of bond Covalent Ionic bond Reaction occurs between Molecule Ions Atoms per molecule Many Few Structure Complex Simple Electrolyte No Electrolyte Organic compounds A. Hydrocarbon -compounds that contains only carbon and hydrogen 1. Saturated - contains single bond ; Example Alkane ( CnH2n+2) 2. Unsaturated – contains double or triple bond. a. Alkene – contains double bond ( CnH2n ) b. Alkyne - Contains triple bond (CnHn-2 ) c. Aromatic Hydrocarbon - hydrocarbon that contains benzene ring B. Hydrocarbon derivative – compounds that contains carbon and hydrogen and other element such O, N, P,S, halogens. 1. Alcohol - ROH organic compound produced by hydration of alkene 2. Ether - ROR - prepared by dehydration of alcohol 3. Aldehyde – RCHO – prepared by oxidation of primary alcohol 4. Ketone – RCOR – prepared by oxidation of secondary alcohol 5. Carboxylic Acid - RCOOH – prepared by oxidation of aldehyde 6. Amine - organic compound derived from ammonia ( NH3) a. Primary Amine –R NH2 b. Secondary Amine – R2NH c. Tertiary Carbon – R3N 7. Amide – RCONH2 – organic compound prepared by the reaction of carboxylic acid ammonia. 8. Ester – RCOOR – Organic compounds prepared by the reaction of carboxylic acid and alcohol Structural formula - two dimensional structural representation that shows how the various atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other a. Expanded structural formula - show all atoms in a molecules and all bonds connecting them. b. Condensed structural formula – uses groupings of atom in which central atoms and the atoms connected to them are written in a group. c. Skeletal structural formula - show the arrangement and bonding of carbon atoms present in an organic molecule but does not show the hydrogen atom attached to the carbon atom - d. Line angle structural formula - structural representation in which a line represent a carbon-carbon bond and a carbon atom is understood to be present at every point where two lines meet and at the end of the line. Classification of Carbon Atoms 1. Primary Carbon - carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly bonded to one carbon one other carbon atom. Ex. CH3- CH3 10 1O 2. Secondary carbon atom – is a carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly attached to two 3. Tertiary carbon - carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly attached to three other carbon atoms. 4. Quarternary carbon atom - is a carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly attached to four other carbon atoms. Alkyl group – group of atom that would be obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane Substituent – is an atom or group of atoms attached to a chain or ring of carbon atoms. Alkane - Saturated hydrocarbon that contains single bond Rules in naming alkane 1. Choose the longest continuous chain as your parent chain 2. Locate the position of the substituent starting from the carbon nearest to it. 3. If there are two or more the same substituents , use the Greek prefixes such as di, tri , tetra, etc. 4. If there are different substituents, write the name in alphabetical order, 5. Use commas between numbers and hyphen between number and letter. Isomer – compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2- CH3 CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 – C – CH3 CH3 Cycloalkane – saturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms connected to one another in a cycl (ring) arrangement are present. The simplest cycloalkane is cyclopropane.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY A. DEFINITION OF TERMS: 1. Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot. = Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical process required in order to produced a photograph. 2. Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people gathered for public discussion. = When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word legal. 3. Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to the police work and in the administration of justice. 4. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and photograph are not the same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a product of photography. B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1. Personal Identification = Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system. 2. For Communication = Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of communication considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph. 3. For Record Purposes = Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work. Different Views in photographing a. General View = taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of the crime scene. b. Medium View = Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This view will best view the nature of the crime. c. Close-up View = Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is design to show the details of the crime. d. Extreme Close-up View = Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as Photomacrography and photomicrography. 4. For Preservation = Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly. 5. For Discovering and Proving = Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as: a. The use of Magnification Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a minute details of the physical evidence. Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera. Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a scenario. It is first used in filmmaking. Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy. Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens. b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to show something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone. 6. For Court Exhibits = Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving reference as to where it came from. Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution. 7. Crime Prevention = with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them from initially occurring. 8. Police Training = Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police training as well as in other agencies. 9. Reproducing and Copying = With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow other experts or person to examine the specimen without compromising the original. C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000 miles per second. 2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material. 3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light coming from the object to form the image. 4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper). 5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called Photograph. D. THEORIES OF LIGHT 1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens) = It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we observe a piece of log floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would naturally will make the log move up and down. 2. Corpuscular theory (Newton) = this later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of very small particles such as electrons. 3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz) = Based on electromagnetics. All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement need not to be very focus on this but rather go along with the accepted conclusion that light is a form of energy, which is electromagnetic in form. E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles per second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity, wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per second. Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a millimeter. Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: Reflected, Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back. Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from either bouncing or passing through. Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer. 1. Types of Light Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light. a. Visible Light = Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye. b. Invisible Light = lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights. 2. Photographic Rays a. X-ray =Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography. b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet) = Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”. c. Visible Light = It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing purposes. d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red) = Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes referred to as heat rays). 3. Light Source A. Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight. 1. Bright Sunlight = object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object appears glossy. 2. Hazy Sunlight = object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds that cover the sun. 3. Dull Sunlight = object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun. Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight. These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be considered. B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp. 1. Continuous radiation Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts. Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in photographing. Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions. Infra-red Lamp Ultra-violet Lamp 2. Short Duration type Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense light. Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photographs. 4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL = It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support. Parts of the Sensitized Material 1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can be composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening. 2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents halation. 3. Base = Support the emulsion I. Types of Film A. According to Use 1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography. Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus. 2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and the reversal type of colored film. The former is usually having names ending in color while the word chrome represents the latter. e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film, Orthochromatic film and Panchromatic film. B. According to Spectral Sensitivity Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of the light course. 1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color. 2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. ( popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM) 3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all colors of the visible light) 3.1. Process Panchromatic film = permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the advantage of the grain structure. 3.2. Grain Panchromatic film 3.3. High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for photographing object under adverse lighting condition. 4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light. FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed) This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light. 1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is. ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000 2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same principle as the ASA. Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc. 3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating. II. Photographic Paper It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and become the photograph. Types of Photographic Papers A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content) 1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones when properly developed. 2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will give a black tone when properly developed. 3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing. Slow emulsion. 4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colors of light. B. According to Physical Characteristics b.1. Weight 1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding. 2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes. 3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under rough treatment. b.2. Surface Texture a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brillant image formation. b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is necessary. b.3. Color a. White = better used in police photography. b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is desired. c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints C. According to Contrast (grade) 1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed film. 2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film) 3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film 4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed) 5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired. 6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable. 5. CAMERA Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material. Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material. Essential Parts of a Camera 1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts. 2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the film. 3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film 4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image 5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the given lens OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA A. Viewing System Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material. B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens for another exposure. C. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a fraction of a second. 1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc. The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering than that of the right number Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain normal exposure. D. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number. f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16 The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized material. If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens in which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening. E. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or clear image. Types of focusing device: 1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type) Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single object. Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is already focused 2. Ground Glass This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in focused the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted. 3. Scale Bed Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his estimation do this. TYPES OF THE CAMERA 1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera 2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to its interchangeability of the lens 3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other for forming the image. 4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for movie making 5. LENS = It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the quality of the image to be formed. = a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image. = Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and change the direction of light. Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera. CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES 1. According to the type of image to be produced a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light together and forms the image inversely. b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the same side of the lens. 2. According to Degree of Corrections a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction. b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS 1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side. 2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp. 3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with respect to one another. 4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion (curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward). 5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red. 6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines. 7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification 8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images. LENS CHARACTERISTICS 1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as: a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider area coverage. b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative. c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area coverage. d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system. 2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of field. 3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one that controls the degree of sharpness of the object. 6. CHEMICAL PROCESS The process of making the latent image visible and permanent. a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution) = Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the image. Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer. c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent. Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver halides. Other chemicals used: Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging. Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing. Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on the dodging board. Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph. Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes of making a balance exposure.

Part 20 (5/5): Bicarbonate and Hydrogen ions [Substances with Regulated Reabsorption]

Potassium/Bicarbonate Set 15

Chapter 26: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance