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Study Guide Module 2 MODULE 2 STUDY GUIDE The Integumentary System ⸻ CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Components of the Integumentary System The integumentary system consists of: * Skin * Hair * Nails * Sweat glands * Sebaceous glands The skin is the largest organ in the body. Functions of the Integumentary System 1. Protection 2. Sensation 3. Thermoregulation 4. Vitamin D synthesis 5. Communication ⸻ CHAPTER 2: LAYERS OF THE SKIN The skin has two major layers: Epidermis * Superficial layer * Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium * Avascular Dermis * Deeper layer * Connective tissue * Contains blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles Hypodermis * Not technically part of the skin * Also called subcutaneous layer * Contains adipose tissue Functions: * Energy storage * Cushioning * Insulation * Anchoring skin ⸻ CHAPTER 3: EPIDERMIS Cell Types Keratinocytes * Most abundant cells * Produce keratin Melanocytes * Produce melanin * Protect against UV radiation Tactile (Merkel) Cells * Touch receptors Dendritic Cells * Immune defense * Phagocytize pathogens ⸻ EPIDERMAL LAYERS Deep → Superficial Stratum Basale * Deepest layer * Single layer of cuboidal cells * Contains stem cells * Contains melanocytes * Contains tactile cells * Site of mitosis Stratum Spinosum * 8–10 layers thick * Contains dendritic cells * Connected by desmosomes Stratum Granulosum * 3–5 layers * Keratinization begins * Cells flatten * Organelles begin breaking down Stratum Lucidum * Only in thick skin * Palms and soles * Dead transparent cells Stratum Corneum * 15–30 layers * Dead keratinized cells * Protection from abrasion * Prevents dehydration ⸻ THICK VS THIN SKIN Thick Skin Found on: * Palms * Soles Contains: * Stratum lucidum Thin Skin Found everywhere else Does not contain: * Stratum lucidum ⸻ EPIDERMAL WATER BARRIER Located between: * Stratum spinosum * Stratum granulosum Functions: * Waterproofing * Prevents dehydration * Prevents excess water entry Components: 1. Filaggrin 2. Lamellar proteins 3. Lamellar lipids 4. Tight junction proteins ⸻ CHAPTER 4: DERMIS Made of connective tissue. Papillary Layer Contains: * Areolar connective tissue * Dermal papillae * Capillaries * Tactile corpuscles (Meissner corpuscles) Function: * Light touch sensation Reticular Layer Contains: * Dense irregular connective tissue * Hair follicles * Sweat glands * Sebaceous glands * Arrector pili muscles * Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles Function: * Deep pressure * Vibration sensation ⸻ DERMAL FIBERS Collagen Provides: * Strength * Support * Water retention Elastin Provides: * Elasticity * Stretching ability ⸻ CHAPTER 5: PIGMENTATION Melanin Produced by: * Melanocytes Functions: * Skin color * UV protection Effects of UV Exposure UV stimulates: * Keratinocytes * Melanocytes Result: * Increased melanin production * Tanning ⸻ Disorders of Pigmentation Albinism Cause: * Lack of melanin production Effects: * Pale skin * Light sensitivity * Increased skin cancer risk Vitiligo Cause: * Loss of melanocyte activity Effects: * White patches on skin ⸻ CHAPTER 6: FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN Protection Protects against: * Microorganisms * Chemicals * UV radiation * Water loss * Physical trauma Dermicidin: * Antimicrobial substance in sweat ⸻ Sensory Function Skin detects: * Touch * Pain * Temperature * Pressure * Vibration Receptors Meissner Corpuscles * Light touch Pacinian Corpuscles * Deep pressure * Vibration Tactile Cells * Touch Hair Root Plexus * Detects hair movement ⸻ Thermoregulation When Body Is Hot Blood vessels: * Dilate Sweat glands: * Increase secretion Result: * Cooling When Body Is Cold Blood vessels: * Constrict Result: * Conserves heat Can lead to: * Frostbite ⸻ Vitamin D Synthesis UV exposure stimulates vitamin D production. Vitamin D helps: * Calcium absorption * Bone health * Immune function Deficiency causes: Rickets Children Osteomalacia Adults ⸻ Communication Examples: * Facial expressions * Goosebumps * Sweating * Hair patterns ⸻ CHAPTER 7: HAIR Hair Structure Hair Shaft Visible portion Hair Root Embedded portion Hair Follicle Surrounds root Hair Bulb Growth region Hair Matrix Mitotic cells Hair Papilla Blood supply ⸻ Hair Layers 1. Medulla 2. Cortex 3. Cuticle ⸻ Hair Functions * Protection * Thermoregulation * Sensation * Communication ⸻ Hair Growth Average: * 0.3 mm/day Normal loss: * About 50 hairs/day ⸻ Hair Color Determined by: * Melanin Gray hair: * Reduced melanin production ⸻ Arrector Pili Muscle Functions: * Causes goosebumps * Helps retain heat Controlled by: * Sympathetic nervous system ⸻ Alopecia Definition: * Hair loss Pattern baldness: * Hormonal and genetic ⸻ CHAPTER 8: NAILS Functions: * Protection * Support for grasping Structures: * Nail body * Nail root * Nail matrix * Nail bed * Lunula * Cuticle (eponychium) * Hyponychium ⸻ CHAPTER 9: GLANDS Eccrine Sweat Glands Location: * Most of body Functions: * Thermoregulation Secrete: * Water * Salt * Waste products ⸻ Apocrine Sweat Glands Location: * Armpits * Genital regions Characteristics: * Empty into hair follicles * Produce odor after bacterial breakdown ⸻ Sebaceous Glands Produce: * Sebum Functions: * Lubricates skin * Waterproofs skin * Prevents drying * Antibacterial effects ⸻ CHAPTER 10: SKIN CANCER Basal Cell Carcinoma Origin: * Stratum basale Characteristics: * Most common * Least likely to metastasize ⸻ Squamous Cell Carcinoma Origin: * Stratum spinosum Characteristics: * More aggressive * Can metastasize ⸻ Melanoma Origin: * Melanocytes Characteristics: * Most deadly * Highly metastatic ABCDE Rule A = Asymmetry B = Border irregularity C = Color variation D = Diameter > 6 mm E = Evolving ⸻ CHAPTER 11: SKIN DISORDERS Eczema Symptoms: * Dry skin * Itching * Rash * Inflammation Treatment: * Moisturizers * Corticosteroids ⸻ Acne Cause: * Excess sebum * Keratin buildup * Bacterial infection Common locations: * Face * Chest * Back ⸻ CHAPTER 12: WOUND HEALING Steps: 1. Clot Formation Stops bleeding 2. Scab Formation 3. Fibroblast Activity Produces collagen 4. Capillary Growth 5. Epidermal Repair ⸻ CHAPTER 13: BURNS First-Degree Burn Damage: * Epidermis only Symptoms: * Redness * Pain ⸻ Second-Degree Burn Damage: * Epidermis + part of dermis Symptoms: * Blisters * Swelling * Pain ⸻ Third-Degree Burn Damage: * Epidermis * Dermis * Hypodermis Characteristics: * Nerve destruction * Often painless initially * Requires grafting ⸻ Rule of Nines Head and neck = 9% Each arm = 9% Each leg = 18% Trunk = 36% Genitalia = 1% ⸻ CHAPTER 14: SCARS Scar Tissue Produced by: * Fibroblasts Contains: * Collagen Lacks: * Hair follicles * Sweat glands * Sebaceous glands ⸻ Keloid Raised scar due to excessive collagen Atrophic Scar Sunken scar Examples: * Acne scars * Chickenpox scars ⸻ CHAPTER 15: PRESSURE AND FRICTION INJURIES Bedsores Cause: * Prolonged pressure Result: * Reduced blood flow * Tissue death ⸻ Stretch Marks Cause: * Rapid growth * Pregnancy * Weight gain ⸻ Calluses Cause: * Repeated friction Result: * Thickened epidermis ⸻ Corns Specialized calluses ⸻ Blisters Cause: * Friction Result: * Fluid accumulation between skin layers ⸻ CHAPTER 16: AGING AND THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Changes: Epidermis * Thinner * Slower cell division Dermis * Less collagen * Less elastin * Slower healing Hypodermis * Fat redistribution * Less cushioning Hair * Thinner * Grayer Nails * Slower growth * More brittle Glands * Less sweat * Less sebum Skin * Wrinkles * Sagging * Dryness ⸻ HIGH-YIELD EXAM FACTS Epidermal Layers Basale → Spinosum → Granulosum → Lucidum → Corneum Touch Receptors * Meissner = Light touch * Pacinian = Pressure/Vibration Pigment Cell * Melanocyte Immune Cell * Dendritic Cell Touch Cell * Merkel (Tactile) Cell Cancer Origins * Basal Cell Carcinoma = Stratum Basale * Squamous Cell Carcinoma = Stratum Spinosum * Melanoma = Melanocytes Sweat Glands * Eccrine = Cooling * Apocrine = Odor Burn Depths * 1st = Epidermis * 2nd = Epidermis + Dermis * 3rd = Epidermis + Dermis + Hypodermis Vitamin D Deficiency * Rickets * Osteomalacia This should cover essentially all of the major concepts from the four readings and is the type of material most likely to appear on a Module 2 Anatomy & Physiology exam

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biology unit 6(nitrogen cyle) new The Nitrogen Cycle Higher Tier Only Nitrogen is present as N2 gas in the atmosphere and within biological molecules, e.g. proteins, in the tissues of living organisms Nitrogen is cycled through ecosystems by the processes of the nitrogen cycle Uptake of nitrogen by living organisms N2 in the atmosphere is made available to living organisms by the process of nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixation is carried out by nitrogen-fixing bacteria which convert N2 gas into ammonium compounds; these compounds are converted into nitrates in the soil Nitrogen-fixing bacteria can be free-living in the soil or they can live within root nodules of legume plants, e.g. peas, beans and clover Nitrogen gas can also be fixed by lightning when it strikes the earth, or during the production of chemical fertilisers After nitrogen fixation has occurred plants absorb the nitrates in the soil and use the nitrogen to build plant proteins Transfer of nitrogen between living organisms Animals feed on plants and digest the proteins in the plant tissues, providing nitrogen to build animal proteins Nitrogen may then be passed from one consumer to another up the food chain in the same way Release of nitrogen from living tissues Nitrogen from living organisms is returned to the soil in the form of ammonia by the action of decomposers such as bacteria and fungi When animals and plants die the proteins inside their tissues are broken down by the action of decomposers and returned to the soil in the form of ammonia Waste, i.e. urine and faeces, from animals contains urea, which is converted into ammonia by the action of the bacterial enzyme urease The plants can’t absorb ammonia so nitrifying bacteria convert the ammonia to nitrates which can then be taken up again by plants The conversion of ammonium compounds to nitrates is known as nitrification Returning nitrogen to the atmosphere Nitrates in the soil can be converted back into nitrogen gas (N2) by the action of denitrifying bacteria This process is known as denitrification Denitrifying bacteria are active in anaerobic conditions, e.g. in waterlogged or compacted soil Farmers can decrease the activity of denitrifying bacteria by ploughing the soil to increase aeration Nitrogen cycle diagram nitrogen-cycle-gcse The nitrogen cycle involves nitrogen fixation, decomposition, nitrification and denitrification Factors affecting the nitrogen cycle Because so many processes within the nitrogen cycle are carried out by microorganisms the cycle can be affected by factors that affect microorganism activity, e.g. Temperature This affects the rate at which enzyme-controlled reactions can occur Oxygen availability Aerobic bacteria rely on oxygen for respiration Low oxygen availability may lead to an increase in the activity of anaerobic bacteria, e.g. denitrifying bacteria pH This affects the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions as extreme pH levels can cause denaturation Water Water is needed by living organisms, so the rate of microbial activity increases in soil where moisture is present The presence of heavy metals in the soil Heavy metals, e.g. mercury and lead, can be toxic to the metabolism of microorganisms These factors are known to influence the rate at which decomposition occurs in compost heaps and landfill sites

Earth Science, Space & Chemistry Study Guide Glaciers 1. What are the two main types of glaciers? Mountain (alpine) Continental 2. What shape is a glacier-carved valley? U-shaped 3. What conditions are needed for glaciers to form? Cold summers Heavy snowfall Snow does not fully melt 4. Why are glaciers important? Store freshwater Shape land Affect climate Earth’s Layers & Plate Tectonics 5. What is the thinnest layer of Earth? Crust 6. What are the three main layers of Earth? Crust Mantle Core 7. What is plate tectonics? Earth’s crust is made of moving plates 8. What are the three plate boundaries? Divergent Convergent Transform Memory Trick Divergent = divide Convergent = collide Transform = slide past 9. What causes earthquakes? Movement of tectonic plates 10. What is an aftershock? Smaller earthquake after a major one 11. What is a fault? Crack in Earth where movement happens Rocks, Volcanoes & Erosion 12. Which rock forms when magma or lava cools? Igneous rock 13. What are the three rock types? Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Memory Trick Igneous = fire Sedimentary = layers Metamorphic = changed by heat and pressure 14. What is the difference between magma and lava? Magma = underground Lava = surface 15. What are the three volcano activity levels? Active Dormant Extinct 16. What are the three volcano shapes? Shield Composite Cinder cone 17. What is weathering? Breaking down rock 18. What is erosion? Movement of dirt and rocks by water, wind, ice, or gravity 19. What is mechanical weathering? Physical breaking of rock 20. What is chemical weathering? Rock changes chemically 21. What is terracing? Flat steps cut into hillsides to reduce erosion Caves 22. What is the most common type of cave? Solution cave 23. Difference between stalactites and stalagmites Stalactites hang from the ceiling Stalagmites grow from the floor Memory Trick Stalactites hold “tight” to the ceiling Stalagmites “might” reach the ceiling Important Earth Science Terms 24. What is uniformitarianism? Natural processes today worked the same in the past 25. Difference between soil and dirt Soil has nutrients and supports life 26. What is elevation? Height above sea level 27. How deep have scientists explored into Earth? Only partway through Earth’s crust Atmosphere, Weather & Climate 28. Layers of the atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Memory Trick The Sky Makes Tiny Explosions 29. What causes seasons? Earth’s tilted axis 30. Difference between weather and climate Weather = short-term conditions Climate = long-term average weather 31. What causes tides? Gravity from the moon and sun Fossils & Resources 32. Types of fossils Mold Cast Trace fossils 33. Renewable vs nonrenewable resources Renewable = naturally replaced Nonrenewable = limited supply Space Unit Solar System 34. Planets in order from the Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Memory Trick My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos 35. What is the hottest planet? Venus 36. Largest planet Jupiter 37. Smallest planet Mercury 38. Planet that rotates on its side Uranus 39. Inner planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars 40. Outer planets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune 41. Gas giants Jupiter Saturn 42. Ice giants Uranus Neptune 43. Why is Pluto not considered a planet? It has not cleared its orbit 44. What keeps planets in orbit? Gravity 45. Rotation vs revolution Rotation = spinning Revolution = orbiting Space Objects 46. Asteroid Rock in space 47. Meteor Streak of light in atmosphere 48. Meteorite Meteor that hits Earth 49. Comet Ice and dust object with a tail Space Exploration 50. NASA program that put humans on the moon Apollo Program 51. First man on the moon Neil Armstrong 52. Space shuttle that exploded Challenger Sun & Stars 53. Two elements that make up most of the sun Hydrogen Helium 54. What are sunspots? Cooler, darker spots on the sun 55. Surface temperature of the sun About 11,000°F 56. Type of energy from the sun Electromagnetic energy 57. How long sunlight takes to reach Earth About 8 minutes 20 seconds 58. Brightness of a star depends on Distance from Earth Amount of light it gives off 59. Supernova Exploding star 60. Nova Temporary brightening of a star 61. Nebula Cloud of dust and gas in space 62. Plasma Material the sun is made of Moon & Eclipses 63. Solar eclipse Moon blocks sunlight from reaching Earth 64. Why the moon has many craters Almost no atmosphere to burn up meteors 65. Why we only see one side of the moon Moon rotates and revolves at the same speed 66. Moon phases to know New Moon Waxing Crescent Full Moon Waning Gibbous Last Quarter Shortcut New → Waxing → Full → Waning Space Vocabulary 67. Milky Way Our galaxy 68. Astronomy Study of space 69. Light-year Distance light travels in one year 70. Constellation Group of stars forming a pattern 71. Most common galaxy shape Elliptical galaxy Chemistry Basics 72. What is an ion? Atom that gains or loses electrons and becomes charged 73. Ionic bond Electrons transferred between atoms Metal + nonmetal 74. Covalent bond Atoms share electrons Nonmetal + nonmetal 75. Metallic bond Metals bonded with freely moving electrons Metal + metal 76. Valence electrons Electrons in the outer energy level 77. Atomic number Number of protons 78. Exothermic reaction Reaction that releases energy 79. What metals usually do with electrons Lose electrons easily 80. Sulfur’s atomic number 16 81. Carbon valence electrons 4 82. Protons in arsenic 33 Parts of an Atom 83. Proton Positive charge 84. Neutron Neutral charge 85. Electron Negative charge 86. Where particles are found Protons & neutrons = nucleus Electrons = electron cloud Periodic Table 87. Groups/Families Vertical columns Same valence electrons 88. Periods Horizontal rows Same number of energy levels Metals 89. Six characteristics of metals Shiny/lustrous Solid at room temperature Malleable Ductile Conduct heat/electricity Reactive Noble Gases 90. Why are noble gases nonreactive? Full valence electron shell Other Chemistry Terms 91. Electronegativity Ability of an atom to attract electrons 92. Free electron model Electrons move freely through metals 93. First law of thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or destroyed 94. Reactants Starting substances in a reaction 95. Products New substances formed Acids & Bases 96. pH scale 0–6 = acidic 7 = neutral 8–14 = basic Nutrition 97. Three macronutrients Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Examples Carbs = bread/pasta Fats = avocado/nuts Proteins = meat/beans 98

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