A Psych Unit 2

Phrenology (Franz Gall)

theory that the bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and character traits

Know parts of nueron

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know image

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

soma (cell body of neuron)

Contain nucleus and all structures necessary for cell functioning

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

terminal branches

Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons

Vescicles

Provides temporary storage of food, enzymes and waste products

Receptor sites

holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

resting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse (synaptic gap)

microscopic fluid-filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell

Neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter - known for producing a calming effect.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

An antagonist is a chemical or drug that binds to receptors in the brain and prevents an agonist from having a reaction. An inverse antagonist not only prevents an agonist from having a reaction on a receptor but causes the opposite response to occur.

The nervous system has two main parts: The central nervous system and The peripheral nervous system

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Sensory (afferent) neuron

transmits impulse into brain or spinal cord from receptors

Motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Neural networks

interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Epinephrine

adrenaline

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

Brain stem

Connects the brain and spinal cord

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

Reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

Limbic System

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Nucleus accumbens

a subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Pituitary

at the base of the brain; stimulates growth and controls functions of other glands

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobe

vision

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Michael Gazzaniga

split-brain research; understanding of functional lateralization in the brain; how the cerebral hemispheres communicate

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Behavior geneticist

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Chromosome

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Identical twins (monozygotic)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal twins (dizygotic)

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; no genetically closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

Separated twins - what we know (nature v. nurture)

The studies of reared-apart twins have shown that in general, half the differences in personality and religiosity are genetically determined, but for a trait like I.Q., about 75 percent of the variation, on average, is genetic, with only 25 percent influenced by the environment.

Molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Mutation

A change in a gene or chromosome.

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Stages of sleep

1. Lightest Sleep (NREM) 2. Slightly Deeper Sleep (NREM) 3. Deeper Sleep (NREM) 4. Delta Waves are omitted but there is not much difference between this stage and stage 3 (NREM) 5. REM

Alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Sleep spindles

short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep

Delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Sleep paralysis

the experience of waking up unable to move

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness