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Phrenology (Franz Gall)
theory that the bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and character traits
Know parts of nueron
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Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.
soma (cell body of neuron)
Contain nucleus and all structures necessary for cell functioning
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Myelin Sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
terminal branches
Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons
Vescicles
Provides temporary storage of food, enzymes and waste products
Receptor sites
holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
resting potential
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
refractory period
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Synapse (synaptic gap)
microscopic fluid-filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell
Neurotransmitter
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
Dopamine
influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter - known for producing a calming effect.
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
Endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
Agonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
Antagonist
An antagonist is a chemical or drug that binds to receptors in the brain and prevents an agonist from having a reaction. An inverse antagonist not only prevents an agonist from having a reaction on a receptor but causes the opposite response to occur.
The nervous system has two main parts: The central nervous system and The peripheral nervous system
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
Sensory (afferent) neuron
transmits impulse into brain or spinal cord from receptors
Motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Neural networks
interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
Endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Epinephrine
adrenaline
Norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal
Lesion
tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Electroencephalogram
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
CT scan
a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
fMRI
A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
Brain stem
Connects the brain and spinal cord
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Pons
A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Reticular formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.
Limbic System
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Nucleus accumbens
a subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Pituitary
at the base of the brain; stimulates growth and controls functions of other glands
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobe
vision
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
Michael Gazzaniga
split-brain research; understanding of functional lateralization in the brain; how the cerebral hemispheres communicate
Consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Behavior geneticist
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Chromosome
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
DNA
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
Genes
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.
Genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
Identical twins (monozygotic)
twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
Fraternal twins (dizygotic)
twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; no genetically closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
