EDEXCEL A LEVEL HISTORY: THE BRITISH EMPIRE: CANADA

Before the 7-Years war, who owned Canada?

France

Who gained New France (Canada) after the 7-Years war?

Britain

What happened when the loyalists evacuated the colonies when rebellions started?

The restructuring of the provinces closer to the American border into Upper and Lower Canada by the 1791 Constitution

What is the 1791 Constitution?

The political system in the newly created Upper and Lower Canadas. It was established by the British through the passing of the 1791 Constitutional Act in Parliament. The Act created a system for political representation in the provinces and assured French Catholics of continuing religious freedom

How did the population of Upper and Lower Canada differ?

Upper Canada's population was largely British whereas Lower Canada was a mixture of descendants of French settlers and loyalist settlers

What factors were different between Upper and Lower Canada?

- Land tenure systems

- Language

- Religion

Which 2 colonies in Canada were still British?

Nova Scotia and Newfoundland (however, Canada as a nation did not yet exist)

What did 'loyalists' from the colonies seek when they immigrated to Upper Canada?

Free land available in the province

What did the administration of the province do in 1825?

Move the system of free land grants to settlers to one of sale by auction. The Canada Company, a private land company, was given a charter to aid the colonisation and development of Upper Canada

How was Upper Canada governed?

By a lieutenant governor appointed by London, who was reliant on the tax-raising powers of a locally elected legislative council, who exercised power along with the governor. The Family Compact, a small group of men from notable families, maintained control of the council

What were the unifying factors of the Family Compact?

- Their loyalist tradition

- Their adherence to the Anglican Church

- Their reluctance to allow any changes to the constitution that could result in less power

What was land tenure based on in Upper Canada?

The British freehold tenure - most land was held by the Crown and was therefore free to grant to settlers

What did Britain do with the indigenous people in Canada that was different to Australia?

They recognised that indigenous people had claim to the land and treaties were signed to increase Crown lands, proving that indigenous people were taken into consideration

What was the main religion of Upper Canada?

Protestant

How did the Family Compact believe they could maintain loyalty?

Through the support of the Anglican Church. Despite the fact that most Upper Canadians were Protestants, the Family Compact would not accept any new laws

What stopped Upper Canada from making economic progress?

It lacked infrastructure and capital investment, and its population was small

Why were the Reformers frustrated with the assembly?

Reformers wished for better economic and political control of the province. In order to raise revenues, the government didn't raise taxes, but sold land to the Canada Company instead. This money paid for the salary of officials. This also prevented them from influencing spending within the province

Why did opposition to the Family Compact grow in the 1820s and 30s?

There were calls for a 'responsible and cheap' government

Who was the 'father of responsible government' and why?

Robert Baldwin - he wrote to Lord Glenelg, the colonial secretary, in 1836 suggesting colonial reform to establish a responsible government whereby the executive was responsible to voters in Canada rather than London

How was land tenure different in Lower Canada?

Land was granted to a 'seigneur' (a landlord of a large estate) who would then grant the land to tenants to subsistence farm in exchange for rents. 75-80% of the rural population in Lower Canada lived in seigneural land

What was the religion of Lower Canada?

Catholicism

What law was used for matters of private law?

French civil law (property rights differed from British laws because the land which belonged to its deceased owner was divided between the sons in the family rather than given to the eldest son as in British law)

Why did the English-speaking legislative assembly cause tension in Lower Canada?

Lower Canada was principally French-speaking and the French-Canadians remained fiercely attached to their identity, culture and way of life

What is the Chateau Clique?

A group of wealthy families in Lower Canada who controlled economic and political power in the province through appointment to the executive council. They were loyalists and British

Why was there hardship for Lower Canadians in the 1820s?

There were economic problems that the Chateau Clique was blaming on the French colonists

What was the Chateau Clique's solution to this problem?

The passing of an Act in 1822 which would unite Upper and Lower Canada, to create an English-speaking majority

Why was this plan dropped?

Because French-Canadians opposed this plan, it was dropped because it wasn't worth the trouble it created. The mistrust of the Chateau Clique therefore increased

Who were the patriotes?

A group of French speakers who wanted to reform the political system to protect their French identities. They sought inspiration from the French and American revolutions and they wanted to uphold the seigneurial system, as it was French

Who was Lord Dalhousie?

The governor of Lower Canada from 1820-8, who was opposed to the patriotes

What did he do to the elected assembly in 1827?

He prorogued it because he didn't accept the patriote leader as speaker of the house

Why was Dalhousie's governorship ended after this?

There was a petition signed by 87,000 people - Britain learned its lesson from the colonies so they were sensitive to unrest in colonial assemblies

What did the British intend to do by allowing French-Canadians more freedom?

Prevent the USA from stirring any rebellion in the Canadas

Why did the 1791 Constitution establish financial autonomy in the Canadas?

They believed the American War of Independence was because of taxation, so by doing this, they thought a situation similar to the War of Independence would be prevented

Why were tensions between Britain and the Canadas inevitable despite the lessons learned from America?

Executive power rested in the hands of a British-appointed lieutenant governor

What were the early signs of tensions in the Canadas?

There was a petition signed by 87,000 people in Lower Canada and reports of petitions and agitation in Upper Canada

What was London's solution to these problems?

They appointed the Canada Committee to report underlying grievances to Britain, where solutions to them would be made

What did the Committee's report do?

It advised against the 1791 Constitution but it offered no mechanism for change

When was the report published?

July 1829 - at the end of the Duke of Wellington's tory ministry. The new Whig ministry prioritised reform of the British parliamentary system and didn't act on the report's recommendations fast enough

What did the 1831 Howick Act do?

Transfer the revenue from duties on Canadian goods to the control of local assemblies. This was based on the belief that taxation caused the American Revolution

What did the Canadians have to do in return for the Howick Act?

Agree to their Civil List for the payment of officials. This was the amount of money that they'd be paid

Why did Reformers and patriotes look to America as a model for government?

They were highly frustrated with the Civil List and they did not agree to it

Who organised the rebellion in Upper Canada?

William Lyon Mackenzie

When did the rebellion occur?

1837

What were the underlying causes of the rebellion in Upper Canada?

- The political system

- Tight control of the Family Compact

- The Anglican Church

What were the short-term causes?

- A more radical voice within the Reform Party

- New emigrants from Britain arriving in the province in the 1830s

- Actions of lieutenant governors Colborne and Head

- The 1836 election

Why was the role of radical reformers a cause of the Upper Canadian revolt?

Initially, the Reformers were led by Robert Baldwin and his father, who unsuccessfully presented their ideas to the colonial secretary. In the 1837 rebellion, Baldwin was in London protesting about his removal from the executive council. Meanwhile, William Lyon Mackenzie was leading events in Upper Canada. Some sons of the Family Compact attacked Mackenzie's newspaper business, making him a victim of persecution. Both Baldwin and Mackenzie began by arguing for reforms to the current system but then they looked to the American revolution to seek independence

Why was emigration into Upper Canada a cause of the revolt?

Many Irish emigrants meant many parts of Upper Canada became Irish in character. There were beliefs that the Irish were feckless, criminals and disease-carriers. Poor immigrants were assisted with shelters and cheap supplies, which Reformers objected to. This was because of the cost and lack of consultation with the Family Compact. There was also a cholera epidemic in 1832 and 1834 and a financial crisis in 1837, affecting the economic stability in Upper Canada

Why was the action of the lieutenant governors a cause of the revolt in Upper Canada?

Colborne and Head shared a similar interpretation of the Constitution - the council was there to be consulted and they simply carried on regardless when faced with opposition. Although Colbourne had interest in improving the infrastructure of the province, he used tax revenues to pay for officials' salaries and didn't create the university that was in demand. His most controversial move was supporting 44 Anglican parishes across the province. Head, unlike Colborne, had no previous experience. Although he invited some moderates into the executive committee, he forced them out when they complained they hadn't been consulted on issues. The removal of Reformers worsened the situation as they had no means of influencing the government

Why was the 1836 election a cause of the revolt in Upper Canada?

The 1836 election was a victory for Head and a number of laws were passed to shore up the position of the Reformers:

- The session of the legislative was extended

- Members of the legislature were prevented from serving as executive councillors (although this rarely happened, it was a clear attempt of the Family Compact at strengthening their hold on government

What did Reformers begin to do under Mackenzie's leadership?

They came to believe that rebellion was necessary and they established Committees of Correspondence and secret councils, recruiting men much like the American revolution. Mackenzie prepared a declaration of independence

Why did the British deal with the revolt in Upper Canada efficiently?

Mackenzie's aims were confused and his leadership was vacillating

What were the 4 events of the revolt in Upper Canada?

- December 1837 - Mackenzie launched the revolt when he heard of the one in Lower Canada and the arrest of the patriotes. About 1,000 men gathered to partake in the revolt

- 5th December - several hundred poorly armed/organised rebels exchanged gunfire and they fled in a state of confusion

- 8th December - remaining rebels were dispersed following the arrival of loyalist reinforcements

- Mackenzie and other rebels fled to Navy Island where his ship was burnt down and he was bombarded by militia and sentenced to 18 months in prison

What were the results of the revolt in Upper Canada?

- Hundreds or even thousands of rebel (sympathisers) fled for America

- Those who stayed were arrested and 2 were hanged

- People kept their opinions to themselves if they advocated an American-style of revolution

- There was more talk of loyalty to the British

What were the long-term tensions in Lower Canada?

They were the result of the exclusion of the French-speaking majority from the executive arm of government, as it was British and loyalists who made up the executive council. There were promises from the Canada Committee in 1828, but no changes actually came about

What were the 3 short-term causes of the revolt in Lower Canada?

- Papineau's leadership of the patriotes

- Economic and social issues

- The Gosford mission

Why was Papineau's leadership of the patriotes a cause of the revolt in Lower Canada?

From 1830 onwards, he became more and more anti-British and, under his leadership, none of the compromises offered by the British on finance were accepted, and neither was the Civil List. Although he was influenced by the patriots of the American revolution, his opposition stemmed from his French-Canadian nationalism, and he opposed any changes in the seigneurial system. The supposed reasons for his change of mood in 1830 were the 1830 French revolution and the economic situation in Lower Canada

Why was the state of the economy (and social problems) a cause of the Lower Canadian revolt?

Lower Canada's economy did not perform well in the 1830s, and the hardship habitants suffered along with increased immigration heightened a radical mood. It got to a point where the military fired on a crowd during the 1832 election when there was a cholera outbreak (due to immigration). By 1834, the more radical side of the patriotes was emerging as a stronger voice in the province

Why was the Gosford mission a cause of the Lower Canadian revolt?

The arrival of a commission of inquiry led by Lord Gosford did little to ease the situation in Lower Canada as the full terms of the inquiry's brief showed that the British had no intention of reforming the constitution that the patriotes were calling for. When this issue was referred to British parliament, the Russell Resolutions were passed, rejecting Lower Canada's political demands. When this news reached the province, there was widespread unrest and agitation. Lord Gosford increased military presence and banned protest meetings. After refusing to accede to the demands of the British government, the patriots began to prepare for revolt

What was 'la société des Fils de la Liberté'?

An organisation similar to the Sons of Liberty in the American revolution

What were the events of the Lower Canadian revolt?

- Sept. - Oct. 1837 - 500+ men make up la Société des Fils de la Liberté

- 26th Oct. - Wolfred Nelson declares 'the time has come to melt our spoons into bullets'

- 6th Nov. - Street fighting breaks out at the Doric Club between British and des Fils de la Liberté

- 10th Nov. - British cavalry and patriotes exchange fire

- 16th Nov. - A rebel force ambushes a small military detachment sent to arrest patriote leaders

- 23rd Nov. - Victory for patriotes at St. Denis

- 25th Nov. - British general Wetherall defeats patriote forces at St. Charles

- 29th Nov. - Wetherall enters Montreal with 30 prisoners

- 5th Dec. - Martial law is declared

- 14th Dec. - 100 patriotes fleeing a burning church are shot

- Dec.- Jan. 1838 - Gosford has the situation under control

- Nov. 1838 - Lord Durham's departure is followed by raids along the American border by exiled patriotes and American citizens in the 'Second Rebellion'

What were the results of the revolt in Lower Canada?

- The extent of rebellion was far worse than Upper Canada

- 500 patriotes were sent to jail and there were about 13,000 rebels

- In 1838, the 1791 Constitution was suspended and Gosford ran a council with appointed members

- The fact that the rebels were French-Canadian in Lower Canada caused the British to view the situation differently

- London finally recognised that a new constitutional settlement was needed which was also alive to the needs of the British settlers

How did the timing of the season affect the Canadian revolts?

They happened during a cold Canadian winter, and greater trouble could've occurred in the summer of 1838 had Britain not taken steps to placate Canadian opinion

What was Lord Durham's answer to the question 'what is a sufficient income for an English gentleman?'

A man might jog along very comfortably on £40,000 per annum

What was his nickname?

'Radical Jack'

How did he earn this nickname?

His contribution to the passing of the 1832 Reform Act

What group was Lord Durham part of?

The whig aristocrats

Why were the whigs unique?

They reformed the political system so that the middle class was able to have a voice in politics. They were open to new ideas that could change social order

What did Durham's prominence and abilities ensure him?

Some kind of role in 1837 (the Canadian question)

Why did the great reforms of the whigs soon become history?

Lord Melbourne became PM - he was detached and cynical and prioritised British affairs over reforming Canada

What 2 factors caused Durham to take on the Canadian question?

- The revolts in the Lower and Upper provinces

- A personal appeal from the queen

What were the strengths of the Durham Report?

- The concept of 'responsible self-government' emerged, and was the first proper definition of 'self government' in British government

- There was recommendations on unifying the Canadas to sort out the problem of the French-Canadian majority in Lower Canada

- It was a necessary ingredient in the development of 19th-century colonial policy

What were the weaknesses of the Durham Report?

- It took ten years for Canada to actually be self-sufficient

- Whig infighting and weakness meant that the only policy directly passed was the unification of the Canadas

- Self-governing wasn't adopted as a direct result of the report

- Durham failed to acknowledge the rights of Native Americans in a report of land settlement and tenure

- The recommendations of the report were only applied to white settlers in the colonies. Jamaica or India, for example, weren't granted this

What position did Durham have initially in the provinces?

High commissioner

Why was Durham popular within the provinces?

Because of his actions and fierce military response to the revolts

Why was Durham a better high commissioner than Gosford?

He consulted widely and speedily with the populations of the province and he publicly discounted the views of those who held executive power in a tight grip. Also, the trouble that reignited when Durham departed was dealt with speedily and effectively

How long was Durham in Canada for?

4 and a half months

How did Durham compile the evidence for the Report?

Him and his aides-de-camp met exclusively with the Canadians, including the moderate Reformers from Upper Canada

What did Durham also do in his time in Canada?

Hold the place of executive power

What was Durham's first actions in Lower Canada?

Removing the old executive council and its temporary replacement with his own staff, ordering that the deposition of the rebels be submitted to him so he could review it and asking for those seeking peaceful reform to co-operate with him

What did the USA government and Durham agree on together?

They agreed to patrol the American-Canadian border using Canada's first police force

How did Durham change the land tenure system in Lower Canada?

Land would no longer be given free to poor immigrants, who surged into the provinces in the 1830s

What did Glenelg recommend Durham do with the political prisoners?

That Durham should release a token group who are persuaded to plead guilty on the condition that they exile themselves from Canada

What did Durham do instead?

Pardoned the majority of the prisoners but banished the 'most' guilty to Bermuda

What was the consequence of Durham's actions?

The passing of the Bill of Indemnity by Lord Brougham - this declared Durham's actions illegal. Brougham did this to destabilise Melbourne's government, but none of those in his government defended Durham's actions

When did Durham resign?

9th October 1838

What was Melbourne's views on Durham's choice of advisors?

He criticised Durham because 2 of his 8 advisors, Gibbon Wakefield and Thomas Turton, had bad pasts. Wakefield served prison time for kidnapping a 15 year old heiress and Turton's wife sued him for divorce, as a result of his adultery with his wife's sister

What were the main reasons for Durham's resignation?

- He wasn't prepared to submit to censure in London over his actions in sending the worst political prisoners to London

- He was annoyed at Melbourne's criticisms of his choice of advisors when he thought he was given full control of his actions

Why is Melbourne not completely responsible for Durham's resignation?

Although Melbourne was unable to support Durham due to the risk of his ministry falling, Durham departed from his instructions and brought the government under justifiable criticism

In what ways was Durham's time in the Canadas effective?

- The provinces were stronger than they'd ever been before his arrival

- John Colbourne (the commander-in-chief) said that the provinces were safe from further rebellion and Durham dealt with rebellion along the USA border efficiently and effectively

- There was no danger of Britain's power being unseated thanks to Durham's ability to work with those advocating reform for years

- His high position in the aristocracy left many Canadians waiting for his report rather than rebelling again

Who were Durham's key advisors?

Wakefield and Buller

What did Lord Brougham say about Durham, Wakefield and Buller's contributions to the report?

Wakefield thought it, Buller wrote and Durham signed it

What were Wakefield and Buller actively doing in the Canadas?

Interviewing a wide spectrum of Canadians (including Robert Baldwin) for the completion of the report

What was Buller in charge of when Durham replaced the executive council?

The commissions to administer the provinces - he also held the position of commissioner for Crown lands, which Wakefield expected to hold, but due to his notoriety, he unofficially supported Buller

What land tenure system did Wakefield devise in New Zealand?

Land was sold instead of given away for free, which was done to encourage more respectable colonists (this was influenced by the system in Canada)

What was Wakefield's systematic colonisation theory?

Land should be sold to immigrants in colonies at a reasonably high price rather than being given away freely or cheaply, arguing this would benefit the economies of the colonies

How did Wakefield and Durham meet?

Through the New Zealand Land Scheme, in which Wakefield hoped Durham would get involved

Which is the only part of the Durham Report directly applicable to Wakefield?

The appendix on Crown lands and emigration - his recommendations of the tax on wild lands going towards a public work scheme were not acted on though

What positions did Buller hold?

Durham's official chief secretary and head of the Commission into Crown Lands (although most work was done by Wakefield)

What was Buller's attitude towards the French-Canadian rebels?

He was sympathetic to them - he felt that British policy caused them to revolt and it was his idea that most prisoners be freed and a handful sent to Bermuda

What did Buller do when he stayed in Canada for a while after Durham left?

Finish the work of the committees set up to help with the drafting of the report (until December 1838)