APUSH - Unit 4

Thomas Jefferson

The third President of the United States, principal author of the Declaration of Independence, and a key figure in the American Enlightenment. He expanded the nation through the Louisiana Purchase and emphasized agrarianism and individual rights. He tried to win the trust of Federalists by maintaining the national bank and Hamilton’s debt repayment and he adhered to the Democratic Republican parties views by keeping a limited central government. He reduced military size, eliminated federal jobs, and lowered the national debt.

Louisiana Purchase

A land deal in 1803 between the United States and France that doubled the size of the US, acquiring territory from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. At the mouth of the mississippi was the territory’s most valuable property in terms of commerce, the port of New Orleans. The land was first claimed by france but then it was claimed by spain and then france, who forced spain to give it back to them because france wanted to focus on fighting Great Britain and a rebellion on the island of Santo Domingo led to heavy French loss.

Aaron Burr

This man was vice president for Thomas Jefferson but he wasn’t nominated for a second term because a Democratic-Republican caucus decided not to nominate him. He secretly formed a political pact with radical New England Federalists and planned to win governorship of New York and lead New England states to seced from the nation. He also was angered by Hamilton who told him an insulting remark so this man challenged Hamilton to a duel and fatally shot Hamilton. Jefferson ordered his arrest and trial for treason for trying to take Mexico from Spain and unite it with Louisiana under his rule.  He was found not guilty though because of the narrow definition of treason.

Lewis and Clark

Jefferson pursuaded Congress to find a scientific exploration of the trans-mississippi west and it was led by Captain Lewis and Lieutenant Clark. In 1804 these two men set out from St. Louis and they crossed the rockies and reached the Oregon coast and then turned back and completed their journey in 1806. The benefits of their exploration included greater geographic and scientific knowledge of the region, stronger claims to the Oregon territory, better relations with American Indians, and more accurate maps and land routes for fur trappers and future settlers.

John Marshall

He was a chief justice of the Supreme Court and was appointed during the final months of John Adams’ Presidency. The other judges often sided with him because they were pursuaded that the U.S. constitution had created a federal government with strong and flexible powers even when there was a majority of judges appointed from the other party.

Judicial Review

The supreme court’s power to decide whether an act of Congress or of the president was allowed by the constitution. The Supreme Court could now overrule actions of the other two branches of the federal government.

Marbury vs. Madison

This was the first major case decided by Marshall that put him in direct conflict with President Jefferson.

Facts: After the election of 1800 Jefferson wins and Adams and the federalists are voted out. Before Adams left he appointed many federal judges at the last minute which are known as midnight judges. One of them Marbury was selected but did not receive his appointment before Adams left office so the appointment was left on the office of the new secretary of state (madison) to deliver but he decided not to do so. Marbury sued, seeking the supreme court to make someone give him his appointment.

Clause: Article III of the constitution which establishes that the judicial branch interprets laws.

Decision: The supreme court ruled in favor of Marbury and gave him his appointment but they declared that the supreme court did not have the right to grant the writ of mandamus so the judicial act of 1789 was declared unconstitutional. This case established Judicial Review for the first time.

Marbury vs. Madison

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review—the power of federal courts to declare laws unconstitutional. The case involved William Marbury, a Federalist appointee who sued Secretary of State James Madison for failing to deliver his commission as a justice of the peace. While the Court ruled that Marbury was entitled to the commission, it found that it could not order Madison to deliver it because the law allowing the Supreme Court to issue such an order was itself unconstitutional. 

Dartmouth College vs. Woodward

This case involved a law of New Hampshire that changed Dartmouth College from a privately charted college into a public institution. The Marshall Court struck down the state law as unconstitutional, arguing that a contract for a private corporation couldn't it be altered by the state.

Gibbons v. Ogden

In this case the court ruled that New York could not grant a monopoly to a steamboat because that action conflicted with a charter authorized by Congress and so New York’s monopoly was unconstitutional and Marshal established the federal government’s broad control of interstate commerce.

Era of Good Feelings

A period in U.S. history, roughly 1817–1825, marked by a surge of national pride and political harmony following the War of 1812, coinciding with James Monroe's presidency. This era is characterized by the collapse of the Federalist Party, which left the Democratic-Republican Party in dominance and fostered a sense of national unity, though significant sectional tensions over issues like slavery and economic disparities continued to build beneath the surface. The period ended with the contentious 1824 presidential election, which split the Democratic-Republican party.

James Monroe

The fifth President of the United States, serving from 1817 to 1825. He is best known for the Monroe Doctrine, a key principle of American foreign policy that asserted opposition to European colonialism in the Americas and sought to protect the newly independent nations in Latin America. He was President during the Era of Good Feelings. His presidency saw territorial expansion, including the acquisition of Florida from Spain through the Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819. He faced internal divisions over slavery but he promoted American interests abroad while navigating complex relations with European powers who were seeking influence in the Americas.

Sectionalism

The loyalty to a specific region of the country (like the North, South, or West) over the nation as a whole, leading to political, economic, and social divisions.

North: Focused on manufacturing and favored protective tariffs to support industry. 

South: Dependent on agriculture and the institution of slavery, opposing high tariffs that raised the cost of imported goods. 

West: Generally focused on westward expansion, seeking internal improvements like roads and canals, and desired cheap land for settlers. 

Henry Clay

A prominent 19th-century American statesman known as the "Great Compromiser" for his role in negotiating key compromises, such as the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and the Compromise of 1850, which aimed to prevent sectional tensions over slavery. He was a strong proponent of the American System, an economic plan advocating for a national bank, protective tariffs, and internal improvements like roads and canals, and was a leader of the Whig Party.

American System

An economic plan proposed by Henry Clay that consisted of three main parts: a national bank to foster commerce, protective tariffs to promote American industry, and federal subsidies for internal improvements like roads and canals to connect different regions of the country. This system was designed to create a more self-sufficient and unified national economy, though it faced opposition from some, particularly in the South, who felt it unfairly benefited the North.

Bank of the United States

The term was a central bank established to manage the U.S. government's finances, stabilize the currency, and regulate state banks. During the Jacksonian Era, President Andrew Jackson's opposition to the Second Bank of the United States became a central political issue known as the "Bank War," which deeply influenced the formation of the Second Party System.

Panic of 1819

This was the first major financial crisis in the United States, marked by widespread economic downturn, bank failures, and high unemployment. It is often cited as the end of the "Era of Good Feelings" and exposed the vulnerabilities of the nation's new market-based economy.

Causes:

• The war of 1812: led to reduced deband for American agricultural goods and increased competition from British imports.

• Land speculation: A post-war economic boom fueled widespread speculation in western lands

• Second Bank of the U.S.: The BUS, initially contributing to the inflated credit supply, reversed course and tightened its credit policies in 1819 to curb inflation. It began calling in loans from state banks and demanding payment in gold or silver. State banks were forced to demand the same from their debtors, many of whom were indebted farmers.

• Many farmers could not repay their loans which lead to mass foreclosures and bank failures.

Effects: 

• Increased unemployment, regional financial tensions, political realignment of the Democratic-republican party, and distrust of banks

Missouri Compromise

A 1820 law that admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state to maintain the balance of power between free and slave states in the Senate. It also drew a line of latitude at 36:30 north, banning slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of the line and permitting it south of it. This temporary solution to the growing slavery debate ultimately failed to prevent future conflicts over slavery's expansion and was eventually repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.

John C. Calhoun

A leading South Carolina politician and political theorist in the antebellum period who advocated for states' rights, nullification, and the protection of slavery. At the start of his career, he was a nationalist who supported a strong federal government, protective tariffs, and was a "War Hawk" in favor of the War of 1812. By the 1820s, his views changed drastically. As the nation became more divided by regional interests, he became the South's leading voice in defense of its institutions, particularly slavery.

Hartford Convention (1814)

A series of secret meetings held by New England Federalists from December 1814 to January 1815 to protest the War of 1812. The convention reflected the growing sectionalism in the nation and ultimately led to the demise of the Federalist Party.

Causes:

• Federalist opposition of the war

• Economic grievances about trade embargoes

• Fear of southern and western influence diluting New England’s political power.

They proposed constitutional amendments to limit federal power and protect their regional interests, such as requiring a two-thirds majority for declaring war or admitting new states.

Tecumseh

The Shawnee chief who, along with his brother Tenskwatawa, led a pan-Indian confederacy to resist U.S. expansion in the Northwest Territory. His resistance was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, and his alliance collapsed after he was killed fighting with the British during the War of 1812 at the Battle of the Thames.  

• Leadership:

  Tecumseh sought to unite various Native American tribes to resist American settlers encroaching on their lands. 

• Confederacy:

  He, and his brother Tenskwatawa (the Prophet), formed a confederacy of tribes in the Northwest Territory (present-day Midwest). 

• Battle of Tippecanoe (1811):

  The confederacy was defeated by American forces led by William Henry Harrison. 

• War of 1812:

  Tecumseh allied with the British and continued fighting the United States. 

• Death:

  He was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, which led to the collapse of his confederacy. 

William Henry Harrison

A military hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe who won the 1840 presidential election on a "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" campaign, representing the Whig Party. His presidency was the shortest in history, lasting only 31 days due to his death from pneumonia, at which point Vice President John Tyler assumed the presidency. He defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 and he served in the War of 1812.

Battle of Tippecanoe

A significant U.S. victory in the Northwest Territory, led by Governor William Henry Harrison against a confederation of Native American tribes led by Tecumseh's brother, Tenskwatawa ("the Prophet"). This battle was a direct result of increasing U.S. expansion and Native American resistance, and its American victory severely weakened Tecumseh's confederacy, increased U.S. aggression toward Native lands, and escalated tensions with Britain, contributing to the lead-up to the War of 1812.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A French military and political leader who rose to power during the French Revolution and became Emperor of France. He is important for his role in the Louisiana Purchase (1803), which doubled the size of the United States, and the Continental System, a trade policy that contributed to tensions between the U.S. and France and played a role in the lead-up to the War of 1812. His government in France is also relevant for how it influenced revolutionary ideas in Europe and how it re-established slavery in French colonies, a decision that impacted the global slave trade.  

Barbary Pirates

North African corsairs who, from the 16th to the 19th century, preyed on merchant ships in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, demanding tribute for safe passage. In the First Barbary War (1801-1805), President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay tribute, instead sending a naval fleet to confront the pirates. This marked a significant departure from previous U.S. policy and established a precedent for using military force to protect American interests abroad.

Impressment

The practice of forcing men into military service, particularly the British Royal Navy's practice of seizing sailors from American merchant ships during the early 1800s. This was a significant cause of tension between the United States and Britain, as it challenged American sovereignty and violated the rights of American sailors.

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair

An 1807 naval incident where the British warship HMS Leopard attacked the American frigate USS Chesapeake after the Americans refused a British search for deserters. This act of aggression, which killed three American sailors and wounded 18 others, infuriated Americans and contributed to the outbreak of the War of 1812. In response, President Thomas Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from trading in foreign ports.  

Embargo Act (1807)

A United States law that prohibited all American ships from engaging in international trade, which was intended to pressure Britain and France to respect U.S. neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars. The act, signed by Thomas Jefferson, was intended to use economic pressure but instead devastated the American economy, particularly New England's shipping industry, and proved ineffective. 

James Madison

• "Father of the Constitution":

  He played a central role in the Constitutional Convention, proposing the Virginia Plan and shaping the government's structure, including the system of checks and balances. 

• Federalist Papers:

  Authored key essays, most notably Federalist No. 10, which argued for a large republic to control factionalism and helped persuade states to ratify the Constitution. 

• Bill of Rights:

  Helped draft and advocate for the inclusion of the Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties. 

• Democratic-Republican Party:

  Co-founded the party with Thomas Jefferson, which promoted agrarian interests and a limited national government, in opposition to the Federalists. 

• President during the War of 1812:

  Led the nation through the conflict, which was largely a response to British interference with American shipping and the impressment of sailors. 

Nonintercourse Act

A U.S. law that repealed the unpopular Embargo Act of 1807 and instead banned trade only with Great Britain and France. It was an attempt to pressure these European powers to respect American neutrality and trade rights by using economic sanctions, rather than resorting to war, but it was ultimately ineffective and replaced by Macon's Bill No. 2 in 1810. 

Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)

A 1810 U.S. law that aimed to end trade restrictions against Britain and France. It stated that if either nation stopped harassing American ships, the U.S. would stop trading with the other nation, a move that ultimately heightened tensions leading to the War of 1812. 

• Purpose:

  To coerce Great Britain and France into respecting American shipping rights during the Napoleonic Wars. 

• Mechanism:

  The law lifted all embargoes, allowing trade with all nations. However, it also stated that if either Britain or France ended its hostilities, the U.S. would cease trade with the other nation. 

• Outcome:

  France quickly announced it would stop seizing American ships, a move which President James Madison hesitantly accepted. However, France had no intention of following through, and its false promise only escalated tensions with Britain, pushing both nations closer to the War of 1812. 

War of 1812

a conflict between the United States and Great Britain, caused by issues like British impressment of American sailors, trade restrictions, and support for Native American resistance on the western frontier. It is often called "America's Second War for Independence" because it ultimately reaffirmed U.S. sovereignty against Great Britain. Despite early U.S. failures and the burning of Washington, D.C., the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, which restored pre-war conditions and boosted American nationalism, largely due to significant battles like Andrew Jackson's victory at New Orleans that occurred after the peace treaty was signed.

Andrew Jackson

Military Hero and Expansion: He became a national hero after his decisive victory over the British at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. His military campaigns against Native Americans, such as the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and the First Seminole War in Florida, were crucial for clearing land for American expansion and increasing U.S. control of territory.

Territorial Gains: The First Seminole War and his actions in Spanish Florida directly led to Spain ceding the territory to the U.S. in the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, which also established the western border of the Louisiana Purchase.

Rise to Power: His fame as a military leader and a symbol of American strength was a major factor in his later move into politics, including the presidency. This made him a popular figure associated with the rise of "the common man" in American politics.

Battle of New Orleans

The final major battle of the War of 1812, where U.S. forces under Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a larger British army in January 1815. Although fought after the Treaty of Ghent had already ended the war, the American victory was celebrated as a triumph that boosted national pride, solidified Jackson's reputation as a national hero, and ushered in the "Era of Good Feelings".

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

This treaty ended the War of 1812 by restoring pre-war territorial boundaries between the U.S. and Great Britain and ceasing hostilities. It was a return to the status quo ante bellum (the state before the war) and did not address issues like impressment or territorial gains, but its effects included boosting American nationalism and leading to a period of greater international respect and diplomatic relations with Britain.  

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

A U.S. foreign policy statement from 1823, declared the Western Hemisphere off-limits to further European colonization and interference. It established that any European attempt to establish new colonies or meddle in the affairs of independent American nations would be viewed as a hostile act toward the U.S. While the U.S. lacked the power to enforce it alone, the doctrine became a foundational element of American foreign policy, asserting a claim to a sphere of influence in the Americas. The doctrine provided a long-term justification for U.S. intervention and expansion of its influence in the Western Hemisphere, an approach later expanded upon by policies like the Roosevelt Corollary. 

Francis Scott Key

A lawyer and amateur poet, wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner" after witnessing the all-night bombardment of Fort McHenry by the British during the War of 1812. His poem, inspired by the sight of the American flag still flying over the fort at dawn, became the U.S. national anthem. 

Erie Canal

An artificial waterway built between 1817 and 1825 that connected the Hudson River to Lake Erie, thereby linking the Atlantic Coast with the Great Lakes and the Midwest. This massive engineering project, completed in 1825, significantly lowered transportation costs and travel times, fueled western migration and settlement, and transformed New York City into the nation's premier port and a major economic hub. It was a key part of the Market Revolution and the broader American System. 

Robert Fulton; steam boats

An American engineer and inventor who was crucial to the development of commercial steamboat transportation. Although he did not invent the steamboat, his efforts led to the first financially successful service, which dramatically transformed American transportation during the Market Revolution. 

• The Clermont: In 1807, Fulton demonstrated the commercial viability of steamboats with a historic 150-mile journey on his vessel, the Clermont, from New York City to Albany via the Hudson River. The ship, sometimes called "Fulton's Folly" before its success, established reliable steam-powered ferry service.

• Innovation for commerce: Partnering with Robert R. Livingston, Fulton's success created a profitable business model for steamboats and encouraged further investment in steam technology. 

Railroads

A new and transformative transportation technology that emerged during the Market Revolution. While canals and steamships were also important, early railroads provided a faster, more flexible, and more reliable way to move people and goods, spurring significant economic growth and westward expansion. 

• Emergence of the railroad network: Beginning in the 1830s, the first chartered railroads, like the Baltimore & Ohio (1827), began to develop. By 1860, the U.S. had more railroad track than the rest of the world combined. This network was concentrated in the North and Midwest, helping these regions connect urban and rural areas.

• Railroads reduced shipping costs and travel times, making it cheaper and easier to transport goods across long distances than ever before.

• Encouraged industrialization: Railroads were major consumers of coal, iron, and steel, which stimulated the growth of these and other related industries

• Spurred westward migration: The railroad opened up new territories for settlement by making them more accessible to settlers.

• Federal support: The federal government played a role in the growth of railroads by providing land grants and subsidies to companies to encourage and finance expansion, particularly in the West.

Telegraph

a 19th-century invention that used electrical signals to send coded messages instantly over long distances, primarily via Samuel Morse's telegraph and code. It was a key technological innovation during the Market Revolution that helped to integrate the American economy and speed up communication. 

Significance in APUSH Unit 4

• Economic integration: With lines often strung along railroads, enabled businesses to coordinate transactions and manage supply chains across vast distances. This created a more integrated, national marketplace and improved efficiency for commerce and banking.

• Rapid information transfer: It drastically reduced the time it took to share information, transforming journalism and providing news almost instantly.

• Nationalism: The faster spread of information across the country contributed to a sense of national unity and a more informed public.

• Foundation for future technology: As the first major electrical communication system, the telegraph laid the groundwork for later advances like the telephone and the internet. 

Eli Whitney; interchangeable parts

This man popularized the concept of interchangeable parts in the United States, which revolutionized manufacturing and became a cornerstone of the Industrial Revolution. This system involved creating standardized, identical components that could be mass-produced by unskilled workers and easily swapped out for repairs. 

• In the late 1790s, Whitney secured a contract with the U.S. government to produce 10,000 muskets.

• To meet the tight deadline, he developed a manufacturing system using machines that created uniform, interchangeable parts.

• Though his famous 1801 demonstration in front of government officials might have been exaggerated, Whitney's work helped pioneer this new method of production. 

Effect:

• Boosted mass production

• spurred industrial growth

• influenced sectional division

• transformed labor (switched to repetitive factory work)

Factory system

A new manufacturing method during the Industrial Revolution that centralized production in large buildings using machinery and a division of labor. It replaced the traditional cottage industry and led to mass production, urbanization, and a new working class. 

• Mass Production and Mechanization: Using machines and interchangeable parts in one central location drastically increased output and efficiency while reducing costs.

• Urbanization: Jobs created by factories attracted rural populations and immigrants to cities, fueling rapid urban growth and creating distinct industrial centers.

• Division of Labor: The production process was broken into specialized, repetitive tasks, enabling factory owners to use cheaper, unskilled labor, including women and children.

• Harsh Working Conditions: Workers faced long hours, low wages, and dangerous, unsanitary environments, which led to widespread labor unrest.

• Emergence of Labor Movements: The poor working conditions sparked the rise of early labor unions and calls for reform to improve workers' rights and conditions. 

Lowell System; textile mills

An early 19th-century New England labor and production model where textile mills, primarily in Lowell, Massachusetts, employed young, single farm women. These "mill girls" lived in company-owned boarding houses with strict supervision and schedules. 

• Integrated manufacturing: All steps of converting raw cotton into finished cloth were completed in a single factory building.

• Paternalistic approach: Mill owners provided supervised housing, meals, and educational opportunities, aiming to create a respectable and moral work environment for the female workers.

• Significant social change: The system offered women financial independence and a life outside the family farm, challenging traditional roles.

• Ultimate decline: By the 1840s, increased competition led to wage cuts and longer hours. The "mill girls" protested, leading to early labor movements. The mills eventually replaced the native-born women with cheaper immigrant labor. 

Unions

Organizations that brought workers together to demand better pay, working hours, and conditions through collective bargaining and strikes. Emerging during the Gilded Age, unions served as a critical check on the power of large corporations and were a driving force behind major labor reforms and legislation. 

Cotton Gin

A machine invented by Eli Whitney in 1793 that rapidly separated cotton fibers from seeds, making cotton processing vastly more efficient. While it boosted the South's economy by making "King Cotton" the dominant cash crop and a leading export, it also entrenched and expanded slavery by increasing the demand for field labor. This intensified sectionalism between the industrial North and agrarian South, helping cause the Civil War. 

Market Revolution

A fundamental shift in the U.S. economy from local and subsistence-based production to a national, industrial, and market-oriented system. It was driven by innovations in transportation, communication, and manufacturing. From subsistence to market economy: Americans transitioned from primarily self-sufficient farming to producing goods and crops for sale in larger markets.

• Innovations in transportation and communication: New infrastructure like the Erie Canal and railroads linked the country, while the steamboat and telegraph enabled faster, cheaper movement of goods and information.

• Growth of the factory system: Manufacturing shifted from household-based artisan work to mass production in factories, with a greater division of labor. Eli Whitney's cotton gin and interchangeable parts were key technological advancements.

• Regional specialization: The North industrialized with factories, the Midwest became the "breadbasket" with commercial agriculture, and the South expanded its cotton production, relying on enslaved labor. These regions became increasingly interdependent.

• Urbanization and wage labor: People migrated from rural areas to cities for factory jobs, leading to rapid urban growth. The rise of wage labor changed work rhythms and created a new working class. 

Consequences

• Social and class changes: The Market Revolution contributed to a growing middle class, an industrial working class, and a widening gap between rich and poor. Middle-class gender roles shifted, creating a "cult of domesticity" for women.

• Intensified sectional tensions: The reliance on industrial wage labor in the North and enslaved labor in the South created distinct and clashing economic and social structures that fueled growing conflict over slavery. 

Industrial Revolution

A period of significant transformation in the U.S. economy from an agrarian, handicraft-based system to one centered on mechanized, factory-based mass production. Key aspects include technological innovations, the rise of factories, urbanization, and a shift in labor from subsistence farming to wage labor. The early period, often linked to the Market Revolution, laid the groundwork for the later, more extensive industrial growth during the Gilded Age and the Second Industrial Revolution. 

Ten-hour workday

• Federal action: In 1840, President Martin Van Buren issued an executive order for a 10-hour workday on all federal public works projects, setting a precedent for the labor movement.

• State-level reforms: Following federal action, some states began passing their own laws. New Hampshire passed the first one in 1847, and Pennsylvania followed in 1848.

• Part of the Ten-Hour Movement: The 10-hour workday became a central goal of the broader labor reform movement, which advocated for shorter hours to improve workers' health, well-being, and quality of life.

• Context of long hours: This reform was a direct response to the grueling conditions of the Industrial Revolution, where workers in factories faced 10, 12, or even 16-hour days, six days a week, often in dangerous environments.

• Labor organizing: The movement for shorter hours was a focal point for many worker organizations in the 1840s, including groups that would eventually become the more prominent labor unions, like the Knights of Labor, which later pushed for an eight-hour workday. 

Common man

The concept of an ordinary, self-made citizen that was characterized for the Jacksonian democracy era, which was a movement that led to greater rights for the common man and opposed signs of aristocracy in the government. This idea replaced aristocratic gentlemen as the ideal citizen. It made people who were considered “of the people”, like Andrew Jackson to be seen as models for this new idea. This increased the voter turnout and political engagement.

Universal White Male Suffrage

This refers to granting the right to vote to all free white men, regardless of property ownership, wealth, or religious affiliation. The movement in the 1820s and 1830s to eliminate property and tax requirements for voting, granting the right to all adult white men. This expansion of suffrage was part of the “age of jackson” and led to increased voter turnout, and a shift towards a more democratic (still racially exclusive) political system. 

Party Nominating Convention

A formal gathering of a political party where delegates officially choose the presidential and vice presidential candidates. These became widespread in the 1830s and they involve adopting the party’s platform and formalizing party rules.

“King Caucus”

A closed-door meeting of a political party’s congressional leaders who nominated presidential candidates before the 1824 election. This system was seen as undemocratic because it was exclusive and controlled by political elites. It was overthrown in 1824 when parties began to hold public nominating conventions.

Popular Election of President

The shift where voters in all states except South Carolina could choose their state’s slate of presidential electors, rather than candidates being chosen by party caucuses or state legislatures. Allowed for more democratic process where citizens’ votes directly influenced the selection of the Electoral College members who would then choose the president.

Workingmen’s Party

A 19th-century labor-oriented political organization that first formed in Philadelphia in 1828 and later spread to other cities like New York. It was the first significant labor-based political party in the United States, advocating for the rights of artisans and skilled laborers through demands such as free public education, the abolition of imprisonment for debt, and a 10-hour workday.

Popular campaigning

The shift in American political campaigns from elite-dominated processes to broader, mass appeal strategies. These campaigns of the 1830s and 1840s involved mass rallies, parades, newspaper articles, and appealing to the “common man”. This approach was first seen prominently in the election of 1828 between Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams.

Spoils system

This system was a political practice where elected officials gave government jobs to loyal supporters, regardless of merit. Most associated with President Andrew Jackson, the system rewarded political allies with positions, which is critiqued for leading to corruption and inefficiency. 

Indian Removal Act (1830)

A U.S. law signed by President Andrew Jackson that authorized the president to negotiate treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river. This act, driven by Manifest Destiny and a desire for Native American land for white settlement, led to the forced relocation of tens of thousands of people, most famously the Cherokee during the Trail of Tears.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

a Supreme Court case where the Cherokee Nation sued Georgia to stop the state from enforcing laws that stripped them of their rights and land. The Court ruled the Cherokee Nation was a "domestic, dependent nation," not a foreign one, and therefore lacked the standing to sue in federal court, a decision that limited its sovereignty and set the stage for further legal battles and policies like the Indian Removal Act.

Worcester v. Georgia

a Supreme Court case that ruled the state of Georgia could not enforce its laws on Cherokee tribal land, upholding the sovereignty of the Cherokee Nation. The Court found that Georgia's laws, which prohibited non-Native Americans from residing on the land without a state license, violated the Constitution, federal treaties, and the Cherokee Nation's right to self-rule. Despite this landmark decision, President Andrew Jackson ignored the ruling, which ultimately failed to prevent the forced removal of the Cherokee people, leading to the "Trail of Tears".

Trail of Tears

The forced removal of Native American tribes from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) in the 1830s, a process that often resulted in thousands of deaths from disease, starvation, and exposure. It was directly related to the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the exchange of lands, and was heavily influenced by President Andrew Jackson's policies. The Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole were among the displaced nations. 

“Pet Banks”

State banks where President Andrew Jackson deposited federal funds after removing them from the Second Bank of the United States. These were often state banks that were friendly to his administration. This action was part of Jackson’s campaign to destroy the national bank and decentralize the country’s financial power, though it contributed to economic instability and the Panic of 1837.

Nicholas Biddle

The president of the Second Bank of the United States from 1823 to its close, who came into direct conflict with President Andrew. He was an aristocrat who, along with allies like Henry Clay, attempted to force the bank issue by re-charting the bank four years early to turn it into a presidential election issue. Jackson’s veto of the re-charter led to the banks’s demise and contributed to the economic instability that followed.

Martin Van Buren

The eighth President of the United States, who served from 1837 to 1841, and a key figure in the development of the Democratic Party. His presidency was dominated by a severe economic depression, which led to his laissez-faire economic response involved creating an independent treasury system. He was also a master political strategist who was instrumental in building the Democratic Party, developing party newspapers, and using patronage to build a loyal following. 

John Quincy Adams

The sixth President of the United States, known for his strong federal government philosophy, which advocated for economic development. His presidency was hampered by the "corrupt bargain" election, his opposition from Andrew Jackson's supporters, and his elitist public image, though after his presidency, he served in the House of Representatives and became a prominent opponent of slavery.

“Corrupt Bargain”

A term used to describe the outcome of the 1824 presidential election, in which Andrew Jackson supporters claimed that a deal was made between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. The allegation said that he used his influence as Speaker of the House to secure the presidency for Adams. Adams appointed Clay as his secretary of state, a position seen as a stepping stone to the presidency. This event fueled Jackson's determination to win the presidency in 1828. 

Revolution of 1828

The presidential election of Andrew Jackson, which represented a major shift in American politics toward greater democracy and populism. This election is considered a pivotal moment because it saw a dramatic increase in voter turnout, with Jackson championing the "common man" against the perceived elite. It marked the beginning of Jacksonian democracy, a new era of mass political campaigning and the establishment of the second two-party system.

Nullification Crisis

A conflict in 1832-1833 between South Carolina and the federal government over tariffs, with South Carolina declaring the tariffs null and void and threatening to secede. President Andrew Jackson opposed this, threatening military action, but a compromise was reached through the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which gradually lowered the tariffs and defused the immediate crisis. This crisis led to increased sectional divisions over states rights versus federal power.

Two Party System

The brief one-party system soon gave way to this system under Jackson with the emergence of the Democrats, who supported Jackson, and the Whigs, who supported Jackson’s rival, Henry Clay. The new parties reflected the changed conditions of the Jacksonian era. Democrats and Whigs alike were challenged by relentless westward expansion of the nation and the emergence of an industrial economy.

Democrats

The political party that supported Jackson. This party resembled the old Democratic-Republican Party of Jefferson and supported a national bank and a national road in order to promote economic growth. This party’s stances included a limited federal government, opposition to a national bank, and a belief in states' rights, although policies like the removal of Native Americans represented a significant expansion of federal power.

Whigs

A U.S. political party that emerged in 1830s, largely in opposition to Andrew Jackson’s policies. They supported a federal role in economic development, which included advocating for a national bank, a protective tariff, and federally funded internal improvements like roads and canals. This party largely resembled the old federalist party and it drew support from form National Republicans, Anti-jackson Democrats, and others who disliked Jackson’s strong armed leadership. 

“Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign

A 1840 presidential election strategy used by the Whig Party for William Henry Harrison. To counter claims that he was a wealthy, out-of-touch aristocrat, Harrison's supporters portrayed him as a humble man of the people by emphasizing his military career and his supposed simple life in a log cabin with a log cabin and cider as campaign symbols. The Democrats initially mocked Harrison with these symbols, but the Whigs seized on the idea to create a populist image that was highly effective, leading to a widespread modern-style political campaign.

Utopia

An imagined or intentional community designed to create a perfect social, political, and economic environment, based on idealistic principles and communal living. These communities were experimental societies that emerged primarily in the early to mid-19th century in response to the rapid industrialization, urbanization, and perceived moral decay of mainstream American society.

John Noyes

An American preacher and social reformer known for founding the Oneida community, a radical utopian society in mid-19th century New York. His community included the ideas of perfectionism, communalism, complex marriage, male continence, and the society became economically successful through various industries.

Oneida Community

A 19th-century utopian community in New York, founded by John Humphrey Noyes, that practiced complex marriage (a form of polygamy), communal property ownership, and communal child-rearing. It was based on Perfectionism, the belief that members could achieve a sinless life. The community gained economic success through its production of high-quality silverware.  

Romanticism

A 19th-century artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emphasized emotion, individualism, and nature over reason and industrialization. It was a reaction against the Enlightenment's rationalism and celebrated the individual's feelings, imagination, and the beauty of the natural world as a source of truth. Key American figures include writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, and landscape artists of the Hudson River School. 

Transcendentalists

A 19th-century American philosophical and literary movement that emphasized individualism, self-reliance, and a spiritual connection with nature. It held that truth comes from individual intuition and personal experience rather than established societal norms or institutions. Key figures include Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. The core beliefs were individualism and self-reliance, divinity of nature, intuition over reason, and human perfectibility. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson

The leading American essayist, lecturer, and philosopher who was the central figure of the Transcendentalist movement. He stressed core values such as self-reliance, optimism, self-improvement, self confidence, and personal freedom. He also challenged the growing materialism of American society and his emphasis on the inherent goodness and spiritual equality of all people helped lay the intellectual groundwork for various antebellum social reform movements, including abolitionism and women’s rights.

Henry David Thoreau

A key American Transcendentalist writer known for advocating individualism, simple living, and civil disobedience in his major works, Walden and "Civil Disobedience". He practiced his philosophy by living in a cabin at Walden Pond, which he wrote about, and by protesting unjust laws like the poll tax in opposition to slavery and the Mexican-American War. As an abolitionist, he is also recognized for his activism and participation in the Underground Railroad.

Brook Farm

A utopian, experimental community in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, founded by George Ripley in 1841 to live according to Transcendentalist ideals. The community aimed to combine manual labor with intellectual and spiritual pursuits, though it struggled financially and closed in 1847 after a fire destroyed its main building. Notable figures like Nathaniel Hawthorne were members, and the experiment was later influenced by the socialist ideas of Charles Fourier.

Margaret Fuller

An influential American journalist, critic, and women’s rights advocate associated with the Transcendentalist movement. She organized “conversations” a series of seminars for women in Boston, to compensate for the lack of formal educational opportunities available to them and to encourage critical thinking and personal development. She also advocated for various other reforms, including prison reform, abolition of slavery, and the rights of Native Americans.

Hudson River School

A mid-19th-century American art movement of landscape painters, led by figures like Thomas Cole, who celebrated the beauty of the American wilderness and helped establish a unique national identity. Influenced by European Romanticism, their works often depicted idealized, majestic landscapes, reflecting themes of nationalism, individualism, and discovery. The movement's name came from its focus on the scenery of the Hudson River Valley and its influence on American culture, often linking nature's spiritual power to the nation's perceived destiny.

Second Great Awakening

A Protestant religious revival movement in the early 19th century characterized by emotional “camp meetings”, a focus on individual salvation through good deeds, and the democratization of religion. It was a reaction against rationalism and the materialism of the market revolution, and its emphasis on personal moral reform fuelled antebellum movements, such as abolitionism and temperance.

Charles Finney

A prominent revivalist preacher during the Second Great Awakening who rejected predestination and emphasized that individuals could achieve salvation through their own free will and moral actions. He was known for his emotional, "modern" revival techniques, such as the "anxious bench," and his message inspired a variety of social reforms, including abolition and temperance.

Church of Jesus Christ Latter-Day Saints (Mormons)

A new religious movement founded by Joseph Smith in 1830 as part of the Second Great Awakening. Its followers believed Smith was a prophet chosen to restore the original Christian church, a mission documented by the Book of Mormon. The group’s beliefs and westward migration faced significant opposition, leading to a history of persecution and relocation, eventually to Utah under Brigham Young. Due to the group's unique beliefs and practices, they faced significant persecution and moved several times, from New York to Ohio and later to Nauvoo, Illinois. The community established strong social structures based on community, family values, and self-reliance.

Joseph Smith

The founder of the Mormon church and a key figure in the Second Great Awakening. He claimed it have received divine revelations, leading to the publication of the Book of Mormon, and sought to restore what he believed was the original, pure church. His teachings and the controversial practice of polygamy eventually led to persecution and his death, after which Brigham Young led the followers to establish a new settlement in Utah.

Brigham young

The successor to Joseph Smith as leader of the Mormon Church who led thousands of followers on a westward migration to the Great Salt Lake Valley. He was a key figure in westward expansion, leading the Mormons to establish settlements in the Utah Territory where they could practice their religion freely. Young also served as the first governor of the Utah Territory.

Temperance

The widespread social and political movement, prominent in the early 19th and early 20th centuries, that advocated for moderation or complete abstinence from alcohol consumprtion. It began with the second great awakening, which emphasized moral reform and personal responsibility and advocates of this movement argued that alcohol was the root of many societal problems. 

American Temperance Society

A major social movement organization founded in Boston in 1826 that advocated for the reduction or elimination of alcohol consumption in the United States. The goal was to persuade individuals to take a pledge of voluntary total abstinence from alcohol, using moral arguments and public pressure. The society initially focused on distilled spirits but later shifted to all alcoholic beverages. It mobilized massive support through public lectures, pamphlets, and educational campaigns. The movement was a response to the social and economic changes brought by the Market Revolution, which included increased industrialization and urbanization, leading many reformers to associate alcohol with societal problems and moral decay.

Woman’s Christian Temperance Union

A prominent, all-female organization founded in 1874 that advocated for the total prohibition of alcohol in the United States. Under the leadership of Frances Willard, the WCTU expanded its platform far beyond temperance to address broader social reforms, including women's suffrage, making it a significant force during the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.

Asylum Movement

A 19th-century reform movement that aimed to create specialized, state-supported institutions for the mentally ill, emphasizing moral treatment and rehabilitation instead of confinement and punishment. Led by reformers like Dorothea Dix, the movement sought to expose and end the inhumane treatment of the mentally ill, who were previously often held in jails or almshouses. This effort was part of a larger wave of antebellum reforms driven by a belief in social justice and the perfectibility of society.

Dorothea Dix

She was a 19th century social reformer who worked for the humane treatment of the mentally ill. Her activism began in 1841 after she visited a jail in Massachusetts and saw firsthand the brutal and unhygienic conditions in which many mentally ill individuals were kept. She launched a campaign to document the deplorable state of asylums, jails, and poorhouses across the United States. Her efforts led to the establishment of over 30 mental health facilities across the country. She lobbied the U.S. Congress for federal land grants to support mental health care. While her proposed bill was vetoed by President Franklin Pierce in 1854, her push for federal funding set a precedent for national involvement in social welfare.

Penitentiaries

A new type of prison developed in the 19th century as part of the broader "Age of Reform". These institutions aimed to reform and rehabilitate criminals through a structured system of discipline, labor, and isolation, rather than simply punishing them.

Horace Mann

A key education reformer who led the Common School Movement, advocating for free, tax-supported public schools open to all children. He is known as the "father of the American public school system" and believed that universal education was essential for democracy, social equality, and creating good citizens. His reforms included pushing for standardized curricula, trained teachers, and mandatory attendance. He believed pubic education would create a virtuous citizenry and reduce crime and poverty. 

McGuffey Readers

A series of educational textbooks used in American schools from the mid-19th to the early 20th century. They were compiled by educator William Holmes McGuffey and heavily influenced by the moral and religious fervor of the Second Great Awakening. First published in 1836, the series sold over 120 million copies and became the most popular textbook in the nation's history, used widely in the growing common (public) schools. The books contained stories, poems, and essays that promoted character development alongside literacy and helped standardize literacy across the Midwest and South.

Susan B. Anthony

A pivotal 19th-century women's rights and social reformer best known for her leadership in the women's suffrage movement. She was a key figure in lobbying for women's right to vote, co-founding organizations like the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), and advocating for equality through speeches and organizing.

• Anthony was a tireless organizer and speaker who traveled extensively to advocate for women's suffrage, which is the right to vote.

• She co-founded the NWSA with Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1869, which focused on amending the Constitution to grant women suffrage. She later became the dominant figure in the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

Abolition

The 19th-century movement to end slavery in the United States through moral, religious, and political action. This movement included various strategies, such as public speaking, publishing newspapers like The Liberator, and networks like the Underground Railroad, and ultimately contributed to legal changes like the Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment. The movement was driven by moral and religious arguments, mostly influenced by the Second Great Awakening. Figures like William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Tubman used powerful speeches and writings to advocate for an end to slavery.

William Lloyd Garrison; The Liberator

A radical abolitionist who founded The Liberator newspaper in 1831. The Liberator was an influential, Boston-based publication that advocated for the immediate emancipation of enslaved people and the promotion of racial equality, playing a crucial role in spreading anti-slavery sentiment throughout the nation. 

• He believed slavery was a moral evil that needed to be abolished immediately, rejecting gradualist approaches.

• His activism extended to other causes like women's rights, pacifism, and the abolition of capital punishment.

• He was a key figure in establishing the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1832. 

Frederick Douglass; The North Star

An abolitionist newspaper founded by this man in 1847, named after the star that guided escaped slaves to freedom. The paper served as a powerful platform to advocate for the rights of African Americans, criticize slavery, and promote racial equality and progress. It represented Douglass's break from other abolitionist leaders and his emergence as a political voice for his own community.

Harriet Tubman

An escaped slave, abolitionist, and famous "conductor" on the Underground Railroad, who led hundreds of enslaved people to freedom. She is also known for her service as a nurse, scout, and spy for the Union Army during the Civil War, and later became an activist for women's suffrage. Her significance lies in her courage, leadership, and critical role in the fight for freedom and equality.